Essay queastion Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Queastion - Essay Example Muhammad captured the Mecca city later in 630 after the Mecca’s population surrendered. Mecca community accepted Islamic religion and recognized Muhammad as the supreme leader. However, quite a number of tribes were against the Muhammad’s teachings and religion. Muhammad later died leaving no message about the leadership and future of Islamic religion. A new leader was immediately declared by the top advisers of Muhammad, and Abu Bakr was chosen as the leader, However, Unlike Muhammad whose leadership style was well known, Abu Bakr was referred as the successor of Muhammad. Abu Bakr took over most parts of Arabia in his two year leadership. Tribes that were against Islamic authority faced Abu Bakr army under the leadership of Khalid ibn alwalid. The takeover of Arabia by Muslim community led to the establishment Caliph, the central control that formed strong alliance between Arabs and the Muslim community. This was one of the merits of growth and power of Islamic religion because coalition between Muslim communities led to formation of strong army. Establishment of a strong army after formation of Caliph led to the capture of other territories such as Byzantine Empire. Other cities were also captured in Iraq after the battle between Muslim troops and the Persians. New leadership of Muslim community continued the spread of Islamic religion. After the death of Abu Bakr, Umar led on capturing other territories such as Iran and some parts of Asia, with thcConquest being also expanded to northern parts of Africa and to Europe. Muhammad being anti-Christ offered death threats to those who refused to convert to Islam. Additionally, his teachings motivated soldiers in war, and were told that those who died fighting for him would be speared during the Day of Judgment in heaven. Syrians and Egyptian Christians accepted Islamic religion easily because they could not bear hardships they were facing from Christianity religions such as

Commentaries Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Commentaries - Essay Example Having intelligence definitely â€Å"impedes the effectiveness of fulfilling [the UN’s] goals† (â€Å"Intelligence Collection at the United Nations for Peace Keeping Operations,† 2011, pp. 4). It is beneficial that member states do share information, to some degree. Of course, it’s important that such information is shared to the benefit of the United Nations. This paper accurately points out, however, that US Secretary of State Colin Powell introduced WMD as being valid intelligence, which led the United States to engage in a war that lasted eight (8) years and cost $700 billion dollars. Breakdown in communication between ONUC forces and the civilian leadership in the Congo due to interference of UN intelligence-gathering is even yet another piece of evidence that intelligence-gathering by the UN may not be a smart idea, because, in this case, the UN member countries were not willing to supply intelligence to the military. In another situation in Haiti, t here was incorrect information being disseminated from informants, and the paper uses this piece of information to support the fact that the UN should not be involved in collecting intelligence for peacekeeping operations. One of the greatest difficulties the UN has, however, is to strike a delicate balance between spying and open secrets. â€Å"For the UN, a great dilemma arises when the information is gathered and kept secretly, since the world body is dedicated to transparency, impartiality and the rule of law† (Dorn, 2011, pp. 4).† Knowing this, it is important to realize how difficult it can be, and is, for the United Nations to continue such operations—not only when such an unreliable piece of information was announced in front of the UN by Colin Powell—but because of the fact that the UN must remain transparent while conducting covert operations. It doesn’t make much sense. III. The Weaknesses of the Seminar Paper First off, in terms of techn ical aspects, there are some minor grammatical errors on the title page and in the introduction. To begin with, â€Å"peacekeeping† is one word, not two separate words. The references or bibliography page also needs to be overhauled, as there is much incorrect referencing structure. Also, the in-text citations for Harvard require more work. Details will be discussed in the Suggestions for Improvement section. Secondly, one has to be realistic about what intelligence is, which is deception. Nations that are not part of the United Nations are game to be spied on. The UN cannot simply rely on informal information from member states. Secretary of State Colin Powell’s information which he introduced before members of the world community in the UN was not good intelligence. This is one of the greatest pieces of evidence why the UN should not get involved in the intelligence community, if there are any. Colin Powell declared, â€Å"Numerous human sources tell us that the Ira qis are moving not just documents and hard drives, but weapons of mass destruction, to keep them from being found by inspectors† (Rockefeller, 2009, pp. 40). Later this information was refuted. â€Å"The question of to what extent Iraq could rebuild and reconstitute its WMD program in four years (1998-2002) is the real issue† (Mauroni, 2006, pp. 116). At the time, however, everyone believed Powell’

EC Defense Essay Example for Free

EC Defense Essay Introduction Public security of Member States has long been on the agenda of the EC, which has culminated in the establishment of a European Defence Market to â€Å"support the Council and the Member States in their effort to improve the EUs defence capabilities in the area of crisis management and to further The European Security and Defence Policy.†[1] The EU also established a programme for countering illegal trafficking of arms.[2] However, national safety and defence has to do with nationalism and state sovereignty. It is doubtful whether a state can feel itself to be independent without being in control of its own defence. It has often been the case that regulations made by the European Community (EC or the Community) regarding trade and citizens’ movement within the territory have on occasion led to the discomfort of several Member States. The Treaty of Maastricht states that one of the major tasks of this supranational organisation is to establish a â€Å"common market† which promotes â€Å"convergence of economic performance†[3]. The Treaty objectives are largely realised through trade, and public procurement Directives, competition and Merger Regulations also exist to maintain the uniformity of trade on the European Common Market. Yet it might not be immediately obvious why documents governing trade, competition, and mergers would become a mechanism that regulates a country’s ability to defend itself. [4]   However, this has been an object of concern to EC Member States and has sparked a proliferation of legal literature discussing the extent to which this is (or has been) possible. An important part of national security and defence is to obtain up-to-date arms and other equipment necessary for the running of the military and constabulary forces as well as other departments responsible for State security. As no country produces all the products it needs for its defence, the balance must be acquired through trade with other countries. The purpose of this essay is therefore to explore the effect of the EU trade regulation of competition and mergers on the defence industries of Member States. It will assess these laws’ control over the means through which Member States are able to acquire the equipment necessary for national defence. Mergers, Trust, Subsidies, and Procurement Directives One of the duties of the European Commission is to stand as guardian of the Treaty that established the EC. Free trade on the common market is one of the major provisions of that Treaty, and competition within the EU is threatened in the presence of cartels or whenever mergers occur. These types of activities are subject to a substantive Competition Test, which gives the Commission the right to intervene wherever a merger occurs that is hostile to healthy competition as it regards trade on the European Common Market. All scenarios that follow mergers and that fail the test (including the existence of oligopolies) are subject to the scrutiny and handling of the European Commission and to possible escalation to the level of the European Court of Justice (ECJ).[5] Mergers have much to do with competition. When companies merge or have an understanding or trust they behave more and more like monopolies, oligopolies or cartels. Government subsidies and laws that regulate the purchases of nationals from a particular company often have the effect of behave like mergers and trusts. However, the government might, for defence purposes, see the need to make laws governing the nation’s spending in a certain market. It might also see the need to exclude other nationals or business from bidding on contracts if such bidding is deemed a threat to the nation’s security. Legislation by the Commission of the European Union disallows this kind of law-making on the part of the Member States. The Merger Regulation 4064/89 applies to these situations, and therefore might exercise a significant amount of control over defence. Public procurement is the process by which government bodies acquire equipment and services.[6] This represents about 14% of EU Member States gross domestic product.[7] Rules regarding this come from the EU in the form of Directives which are subsequently adopted by Member States. Public sector contracts, services and supplies are published across the EU, facilitating free trade in these areas as well. Breaches of these rules can be pointed out by the European Commission, and can incur legal action before the European Court of Justice.[8] The laws of the EC make it clear that competition should in no way be hindered, in the pursuit of the objective of good value for money[9]. Mergers and government subsidies are cases in which this might happen. However, there is evidence that where governments sanction mergers of companies that deal with military equipment, the effects of Merger Regulation 4064/89 might be escaped. The creation of Eurocopter and its encouragement by the French and German governments demonstrate this. Although the Commission granted that the merger was governed by the Regulation, it conceded that such a venture was â€Å"compatible with the Single European Market.†[10]   In addition, Article 21 and Court opinions formed as a result of the Aà ©ropatiale-Alenia-de Haviland case allow for Member States to take measures necessary to protect interests considered legitimate, and national security is admitted as part of that group. Therefore, though the EU Commission often does have a significant amount of control over defence industries, certain privileges are granted to the Member States for matters of national security. With soft defence materials the rules change slightly. In such cases, prohibitions of mergers by the Commission are final. If, however, the Commission chooses to allow such a merger, the Member State is at liberty to prohibit it. It has been found that exemption from the Merger Regulation all hard defence materials might be prudent, as mergers would help with competition against non-European countries such as the United States. As it stands, however, the Commission enjoys full control over soft defence (or dual purpose) goods, and tempered control over hard defence materials. With regard to the Directives governing public procurement of equipment and services, the European Commission demonstrates another way in which it can have an impact on Member States’ defence industry. One case finds the Commission applying to the European Court of Justice for a declaration that Belgium had failed to fulfil its directive obligations (with regard to 92/50/EEC), being in breach of the provisions Articles 11(3) and 15(2). Belgium had â€Å"issued a restricted invitation to tender† for the surveillance of its coastal regions by means of aerial photography, and did this without expressly notifying the European Communities via the Official Journal.[11] It is of note that this kind of coastal surveillance can have immense implications for national defence. However, the Commission faulted the Member State for neglecting to perform the necessary publishing measures before executing actions toward procurement of the contracts. The ECJ found it necessary to determine whether the action of the Belgian government was even governed by the Directive in question, considering that much of the contract regarded aerial photography and the Directive mainly deals with architectural, engineering, and landscaping services. The Court’s opinion was that it saw â€Å"no reason to call into question the Belgian Governments assessment that aerial photography accounts for the predominant value of the contract. Accordingly, the contract falls under Annex I B, with the result that the tendering procedure under Community law, under Titles III to VI of Directive 92/50, does not have to be followed.†[12] Here the Member state was granted autonomy in that sphere of defence. However, had the contracts involved a slightly different type of service, the Commission might have been awarded the case. Trade Laws and Defence Certain of the EC Articles, namely 30 (ex 36), 39(3) (ex 48), 58(1) (b) (ex 73d), (81)(1), 226, 296 (ex 223), and 297 (ex 224) deal explicitly with issues of trade and competition that concur with those of national security, and offer ways in which the Member States can attend to their national interest where they might conflict with the terms of the Treaty. However, some of the articles are equivocally worded such that they allow for sometimes opposing interpretations. These articles lead to uncertainty with regard to the provisions of Treaty as well as to how the European Court of Justice would rule in certain situations. Therefore, it is unclear exactly how Member-State sovereignty is affected by the Treaty, since certain controversies have arisen because to some extent the Treaty has touched the industries that deal in the trade of materials necessary for national defence. Articles 28 and 29 of the EC Treaty agreement ban restrictions on the quantities of goods that can be imported or exported by the Member States. However, article 30 states that such restriction â€Å"shall not preclude prohibitions or restrictions on imports, exports, or goods in transit justified on grounds of [†¦] public security.† This grants Member States the ability to derogate from the regular stipulations of the treaty should the goods in question pose a threat to public security. Clearly in this case, although the treaty is apt to regulate areas of the defence industry, the articles make way for the countries to be free from its influence in that regard. In fact, in June of 2003, the European Union adopted a Common Position requiring that Member States enact â€Å"ad hoc† legislation to regulate the activities of arms brokers.[13] However, the use of the word â€Å"require† indicates that the power to act in that way was conferred upon the state by an organisation in whose possession the power had rested before. It also implies that to some degree power still rests in the hands of that body. A closer look at EC Article 30 supports this idea. It reads: â€Å"Such prohibitions or restrictions shall not, however, constitute a means of arbitrary discrimination or a disguised restriction on trade between Member States.† This implies that any Member State that wishes to enact laws affecting the defence industry for the purpose of protecting their interests must do so for specific and justifiable reasons. Indeed, the use of the term ad hoc in the 2003 EU position on arms brokering indicates that the control that Member States are granted over their defence market laws is not a general one, but one that materialises only under extenuating circumstances. The Irish case involving Campus Oil is an interesting example. The Irish requirement that 35% of all oil and petroleum products be purchased from the national refinery constituted a case of according an unnatural advantage to a supplier on the Common Market. This was done to protect the Irish economy and to scaffold the company, but might be considered a matter of defence since such military equipment as tankers would require fuel from this national refinery in the event of a national emergency. It was therefore crucial for the refinery to stay in business. The Court saw this necessity, and allowed the national requirement to remain in place.[14] What this case demonstrates is that the European Community law regimes on trade, competition, mergers and the like do have the power to regulate the laws that regard the defence industry. Though the EC laws cited do not relate specifically to defence, the surveillance of a coastline or the protection of a State’s leading energy company can have immense implications for national security. These laws were enacted to combat that effect, and the EC law was able to call that Member State law into question. It, however, did ultimately grant leave to the Member States because of the delicate nature of the situation. Competition and Defence The EC Treaty article that concerns the distortion of competition exists to prevent scenarios in which monopolies could arise in the marketing of certain military goods and/or to certain areas. Articles 85 and 86 regulate situations to ensure that a firm or other venture which has a comparative advantage in the market does not in any way use that advantage to disrupt competition. As far as the Articles allow derogation from this rule, it is not clear whether private companies are able to claim that the provisions of the Articles apply to their situations. However, for derogation to be possible, such benefits as economic progress for both companies and consumers must be proven, and neither indispensable restrictions nor the elimination of competition for the products involved should result from the mergers. One aspect of the GEC-Siemens v. Plessey case concerned whether a company licensed to distribute arms has a right to award sub-licences. The Commission’s opinion on the subject was that only Member States are allowed to invoke article 296b[15]. Therefore, as far as private undertakings concerning military products are involved in the market, competition and free trade are to be assumed to govern military defence equipment.[16] With regard to resolving whether dual-use goods fall under the jurisdiction of the Treaty, there exists a list drawn up by the European Community in 1958.[17] Yet though it has not been officially published, it is now in the public domain. On it is contained traditional types of military equipment, such as tankers and other types of typically defence-oriented products. If this list were considered as containing all the items that are to be excluded from the jurisdiction of the Commission, then it would be clearer how far the EU laws govern the defence industries of Member States. Because goods that can be used both civilly and militarily are not present on the list, it would become clear that dual-use goods should fall solely under the jurisdiction of the Treaty. Though the list has been considered outdated by many, upon close consideration it can be found that many of the newer military equipment can be covered by the broad terms used in the list[18]. If, therefore, the list is to be considered exhaustive, it leads to the conclusion that dual-use goods are not covered by Article 296 and are therefore under the jurisdiction of the Commission. In such cases where dual-use goods are being traded for military purposes, then, the Commission would have some amount of control over the defence industry of the Member State in question. Recently the European Commission has sent forth a Communication[19] on the issue of the interrelatedness of civil, market and defence policies. The purpose of the Communication document is to promote and enhance more efficient spending on defence, to maintain competition in the defence industry, as well as to uphold fairness and ethics in the trade of defence materials. Long has the issue of European defence hung in limbo because of the problematic nature of defence collaboration among Member States. Such situations usually have resulted in encroachment upon the sovereignty of each state. The aims of the Communication are set to be effected through the monitoring of industries related to defence. This activity by the Commission is supported by EC Treaty Art. 296. Through this measure, the EC proposes to regulate licensing, delivery, certification, and other things which have caused arms-trade problems at the borders within the European Community. Beyond this, the EC recognises the importance of competition to the creation of defence sector that does not harm the common market—a defence market that is as similar as possible to the market that exists for non-military goods.   Article 296 has been thought of as a prime obstacle to the European defence market integration, though the European Parliament believes that this article does allow for integration if the Member States cooperate.[20] This article gives states the right to take â€Å"such measures as it considers necessary† to protect its own security interests as far as these concern the procurement of arms and other military equipment. It further stipulates that any action implemented ought not to impair the functioning of the market as far as it concerns goods that are not explicitly military related. It is here that much confusion enters concerning the extent to which the European Community laws govern the defence industry, as demonstrated in the cases of Werner and Leifer.[21] Arrowsmith notes that the importance of the Treaty is largely manifest in actions that lie â€Å"below the thresholds† of the Member state legislation.[22] These states are, according to EC 296, clearly in charge of the trade of expressly military commodities. However, which body shall be in charge of regulating those goods that may be used for both civil and military purposes (dual-use goods) remains in question. Koutrakos reminds us that the Common Commercial Policy established in EC 113 grants exclusive competency to the Community itself. Without this competency in the hands of the EC, the Member States might be inclined to act in a way contrary to the intentions of the Community and create mistrust among the members.[23] In cases where the goods in question are military in nature and a Member State wishes to derogate from the terms of the Treaty, the effects of doing so are subject to a proportionality test. This test ascertains that â€Å"no other measure, less restrictive from the point of view of the free movement of goods, capable of achieving the same objective† could have been performed in its place. The measure must also achieve a maximum amount of good for the Member State with the most minimal of adverse effects on the Community as a whole.[24] Moreover, the provisions of Article 296 do not automatically apply to any country as it regards military security. This article has to be invoked by any party that perceives the necessity to curtail or otherwise regulate the trade of defence products. In that case, the state must also be prepared to offer reasons why such action is necessary, as the burden of proof lies on that state. The EC Court then has the right to intensely scrutinise the actions and motives of the Member state that chooses to derogate from the provision of the Treaty via Article 296. It also has the power to demand that it change its policy back to that of the EC if the motives prove unethical or the reasons inadequate. One such case is the Commission vs. Spain[25], in which the Spanish government had enacted laws exempting from the value-added tax (VAT) exports and transfers of military goods within the Community and to third countries. The argument by the Spanish government was that the measure was necessary for the health of the defence industry, and that such a measure was protected under the provisions of EC 296(1)(b). The Community itself invoked EC 226, which gives the Commission the right to give an opinion on any matter in which it considers that the state has not complied with the terms of the Treaty.[26] The Court ruled that any interpretation of Article 296 should be a limited one. So that where the wording of the article gives the apparent idea that all measures considered necessary by the Member States are viable, the Court emphasises that the states must be able to prove the necessity of those actions in order for them to go unchecked. In this way, Spain was forced to change its policy, and the EC law demonstrated a significant amount of control over the defence industry of Member States. Yet the Spanish derogation was a frivolous attempt, and represented what might be seen as a much lower level of scrutiny by the Court than other cases might. Other states with much more dire cases could conceivably be granted much more autonomy with regard to the regulation of their own portion of the defence market.   The Member States have usually interpreted this article (EC 296) to mean that the exemption of defence material from the terms of the Treaty occurred automatically. On the other hand, the Community has held that any derogation by Member States must be according to strict rules testable by the aforementioned proportionality test. This would therefore mean that it is not only in the case of Spain’s obviously opportunistic case, but in all cases that â€Å"the Treaty would in general apply to hard defence material and [†¦] the Community has jurisdiction over these products unless a Member State can prove the existence of a situation justifying derogation from the regime.†[27] Other complications stem from the second part of Article EC 296(1)(b). This reads, â€Å"Such measures shall not adversely affect the conditions of competition in the common market regarding products which are not intended for specifically military purposes.† In the case between the Republic of Portugal and the Commission,[28] it was held by the Portuguese government that during the privatisation of the company Cimpor-Cimentos, no buyer would be able to acquire rights amounting to more than 10% of the shares. This privilege was reserved only for the Portuguese government. The Commissioners brought this government to the Court because its actions had in their view breached the EC laws against interference with competition. The Commission did acknowledge, however, that had the Portuguese law been concerned with matters of national security, an exception would have been made for the case. However, even in a Portuguese appeal to the Court, the opinion given by Advocate General Tizzano was that the appeal be rejected on the grounds that the action of that government served to impede competition on the European market. Therefore, though this case demonstrates that the ECJ clearly has the authority to force the compliance of Member States on questions of competition, it does sometimes refrain from this if/when defence equipment is involved. The Italian case C-423/98, Alfredo Albore [2000] ECR I-5965 concerned the right of any EU citizen to purchase land in any Member State. The Italian government made it illegal for the German citizen to purchase land declared â€Å"of military importance† to the country. Though this land, not being an expressly military commodity, does for that reason fall under the jurisdiction of the Treaty, the Court decided to allow the Italians derogation through the invocation of Article 296 and the declaration of the land a matter of national defence. Conclusion Some goods that are used by civilians and that can also be used for military purposes are regulated by the Commission. In other situations where countries accord merger rights or subsidies to certain business for military purposes, the Commission has a right to intervene and in those situations can be seen as regulating the country’s defence industry. Goods and services that are considered of military importance to a country may not always be explicitly military or differentiable from goods/services designated for civilian use. In those cases where the Commission has jurisdiction, the right is theirs to allow or prohibit the actions of a Member State government. The Treaties, Procurement Directives, and Merger Regulations of the European Community function in such a way as to promote a healthy market economy in which no producer or country has an unfair advantage with regard to the manufacture or sale of its product. The nature of the defence industry dictates that its functions often come under the regulations of the European Community, and this often indicates the possibility of national security problems for Member States. Because of this, several of the articles in these treaties/regulations allow for derogation from their provisions. Yet, in many cases this allowance has proven equivocal to the point where the European Court of Justice has had to become involved. The European Commission works hard to devise a method of regulation that accounts for the security of the individual states while maintaining the freedom of the Common Market; but as yet, where competition and merger control concerns public procurement and trade of dual-use goods, the EC still exercises, to a significant extent, control over the defence industry of its Member States. References Anders, Holger. (2004). â€Å"Controlling arms brokering: next steps for EU Member States.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   GRIP p6. Arrowsmith, Sue. (1995). The application of the EC Treaty rules to public and utilities    procurement. Public Procurement Law Review. 6.255-280. Arrowsmith, Sue. (2002). The EC procurement directives, national procurement policies,   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   and better governance: the case for a new approach.† 27(1), 3-24. â€Å"Competition: Mergers (Overview).† Europa. Accessed 2 March, 2006.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://europa.eu.int/comm/competition/publications/special/3_merger.pdf   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Commission of the European Communities v Kingdom of Belgium (C-252/01).†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Official Journal of the European Union. (2003). C 289/3.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://europa.eu.int/eur-  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   lex/pri/en/oj/dat/2003/c_289/c_28920031129en00030003.pdf â€Å"Consolidated version of the Treaty establishing the European Community.† (2002).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Official Journal of the European Communities. C 325/33. Eikenberg, Katharina. (2000) â€Å"Article 290 (ex. 223) and external trade in strategic   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   goods.† European Law Review. 25(2), 117-138. Georgopoulos, Aris. (2005). â€Å"Defence procurement and EU law.† European Law Review.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   30(4), 559-572. Georgopoulos, Aris. (2003). â€Å"Industrial and market issues in European defence: the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Commission Communication of 2003 on harmonisation and liberalisation of   Ã‚  Ã‚   defence markets.† Public Procurement Law Review. 4.NA82-89. â€Å"Fourth Annual Report on the implementation of the EU Joint Action of 12  July 2002 on   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   the European Unions contribution to combating the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   destabilising accumulation   Ã‚  Ã‚   and spread of small arms and light weapons (2002/589/CFSP).† (2005). Official   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Journal of the European Communities. C 109, vol. 48.P. 0001 – 0025.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   http://europa.eu.int/eur-lex/lex/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   52005XG0504(01):EN:HTML Koutrakos, Panos. (1998). â€Å"Exports of dual-use goods under the law of the European   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Union.† European Law Review. 23(3) 235-251 O’Keeffe, D. Branton, J. (2006). â€Å"State Aid and Public Procurement: A Practical   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Guide.† Hammonds. http://www.hammonds.com/FileServer.aspx?oID=21843 â€Å"Portuguese Republic v Commission of the European Communities (C-42/01).† CVRIA. (2004). http://curia.eu.int/jurisp/cgi-bin/form.pl?lang=en Saggio, Antonio. (1999). â€Å"Association Église de Scientologie de Paris and Scientology International Reserves Trust versus the Republic of France.† Opinion of Advocate   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   General Saggio. CVRIA. http://curia.eu.int/jurisp/cgi-  Ã‚   bin/form.pl?lang=enSubmit=Submitalldocs=alldocsdocj=docjdocop=doco  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   pdocor=docordocjo=docjonumaff=datefs=datefe=nomusuel=domain  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   e=mots=military+arms+goodsresmax=100 Trybus, Martin. (2002). â€Å"The EC Treaty as an instrument of European defence   Ã‚   integration: judicial scrutiny   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   of defence and security exceptions.† Common   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Market Law Review. 39. 1347-1372. Trybus, Martin. (2005). â€Å"A fine balance: free movement and public security in the EC   Ã‚   Treaty.† European Union Law and Defence Integration. Hart: Oxford. Trybus, Martin. (0000). â€Å"European defence procurement: toward a comprehensive   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   approach.† European Public Law. Vol. 4(1). 111-133. Trybus, Martin. (2004). â€Å"The limits of European Community competence for defence.† European Foreign Affairs Review. 9, 189-217. Trybus, Martin. (2000). â€Å"On the application of the EC Treaty to armaments.† European Law Review. 25(6), 663-668. Trybus, Martin. (2002). â€Å"Procurement for the armed forces: balancing security and the    internal market.† European Law Review. 27(6), 692-713. Trybus, Martin. (2000). â€Å"The recent judgement in Commission vs. Spain and the   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   procurement of hard defence material.† Public Procurement Law Review. 4. NA   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   99-103. [1]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Georgopoulos, Aris. (2005). â€Å"Defence procurement and EU law.† European Law Review. 30(4), 559-572. [2]  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fourth Annual Report on the implementation of the EU Joint Action of 12  July 2002. [3]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Article 2. â€Å"Consolidated version of the Treaty establishing the European Community.† (2002). Official Journal of the European Communities. C. 325/33. [4]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Trybus, Martin. (2004). â€Å"The limits of European Community competence for defence.† European Foreign Affairs Review. 9, 189-217. [5]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Competition: Mergers (Overview).† Europa. http://europa.eu.int/comm/competition/publications/special/3_merger.pdf [6]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Arrowsmith, Sue. (2002). The EC procurement directives, national procurement policies, and better governance: the case for a new approach.† 27(1), 3-24. [7]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Trybus, Martin. (2002). â€Å"Procurement for the armed forces: balancing security and the internal market.† European Law Review. 27(6), 692-713. [8]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   O’Keeffe, D. Branton, J. (2006). â€Å"State Aid and Public Procurement: A Practical Guide.† Hammonds. http://www.hammonds.com/FileServer.aspx?oID=21843 [9]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Arrowsmith, Sue. (2002). The EC procurement directives, national procurement policies, and better governance: the case for a new approach.† 27(1), 3-24. [10]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Trybus, Martin. (0000). â€Å"European defence procurement: toward a comprehensive approach.† European Public Law. Vol. 4(1). 111-133. [11]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Commission of the European Communities v Kingdom of Belgium (C-252/01).† Official Journal of the European Union. (2003). C 289/3. [12]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ibid. [13]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Anders, Holger. (2004). â€Å"Controlling arms brokering: next steps for EU member states.† GRIP p6. [14]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Trybus, Martin. (2005). â€Å"A fine balance: free movement and public security in the EC Treaty.† European Union Law and Defence Integration. Hart: Oxford. [15]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Any Member State may take such measures as it considers necessary for the protection of the essential interests of its security which are connected with the production of or trade in arms, munitions and war material; such measures shall not adversely affect the conditions of competition in the common market regarding products which are not intended for specifically military purposes.† . â€Å"Consolidated version of the Treaty establishing the European Community.† (2002). Official Journal of the European Communities. C. 325/33. [16]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Trybus, Martin. (0000). â€Å"European defence procurement: toward a comprehensive approach.† European Public Law. Vol. 4(1). 111-133. [17]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ibid. [18]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Trybus, Martin. (2005). European Union Law and Defence Integration. Hart: Oxford. [19]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Georgopoulos, Aris. (2003). â€Å"Industrial and market issues in European defence: the Commission Communication of 2003 on harmonisation and liberalisation of defence markets.† Public Procurement Law Review. 4.NA82-89. [20]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Ibid. [21]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Eikenberg, Katharina. (2000) â€Å"Article 290 (ex. 223) and external trade in strategic goods.† European Law Review. 25(2), 117-138. [22]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Arrowsmith, Sue. (1995). The application of the EC Treaty rules to public and utilities procurement. Public Procurement Law Review. 6.255-280. [23]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Supra n.2 at 1364. Qtd. in Koutrakos, Panos. (1998). â€Å"Exports of dual-use goods under the law of the European Union.† European Law Review. 23(3) 235-251 [24]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Trybus, Martin. (2002). â€Å"The EC Treaty as an instrument of European defence integration: judicial scrutiny of defence and security exceptions.† Common Market Law Review. 39. 1347-1372. [25]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Trybus, Martin. â€Å"The recent judgement in Commission vs. Spain and the procurement of hard defence material.† 4. NA 99-103. [26]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Consolidated version of the Treaty establishing the European Community.† (2002). Official Journal of the European Communities. C. 325/33. [27]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Trybus, Martin. â€Å"The recent judgement in Commission vs. Spain and the procurement of hard defence material.† 4. NA 99-103. [28]   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Portuguese Republic v Commission of the European Communities (C-42/01).† Cvria. (2004).

The Levels Are Core Product Benefits Marketing Essay

The Levels Are Core Product Benefits Marketing Essay BMW has the image of a premium car manufacturer who is know for its well driving cars with a sportier performance than their competition, prime example of this is the fact that BMW only produces rear-wheel drive and four-wheel drive cars. Their premium image comes from the fact that they produce high-quality and relatively high prices automobiles. Even though their prices are relatively high the perceived value level is still at a sufficient level because of the balance with high quality. One of the core product benefits would be technology. For example EfficientDynamics which manages to lower fuel consumption without really compromising the performance BMW is known for, through means such as lightweight construction, a start-stop function, brake energy regeneration and tires with less roll resistance just to name a few. BMW has won many awards for innovation for measures such as these so their technology is at a high and innovative level. Product Attributes BMW was founded in 1916 and its first car went on sale in 1929, a well known and old brand known for its innovation is one of the strengths BMW can build on. Not only in the automobile branch but also known for its aircraft engines and motorcycles. Design, especially under Christopher Bangle recent design has been an important factor, loved by some hated by others the new design direction Bangle took was a hot topic in automobile discussions. What cannot be denied is that BMWs have a distinctive design with some elements that have been in its cars for decades. For example the characteristic grille, first introduced in 1933 and still in use on every car model BMW manufactures. Another part of design is that BMW designs all its products with recycling in mind, Design for Recycling makes sure that the right materials are used and recycling is easier because it is being accounted for at a design stage. BMW has a programme called BMW Individual in which such as the name states a customer can customise its car to great extent. Options such as exclusive paint, leather colours and types and more extensive audio/video possibilities are all part of this programme, all to satisfy the customer to the greatest extent. Support Services The normal delivery of an automobile consists of having it made ready by your dealer and having it delivered to your home. With BMW it is possible to pick it up at the factory it was produced at and have a tour there for example and visit the BMW museum, it is even possible for American customers to make use of this programme and BMW will even take care of the shipping afterwards. An exclusive offering which turns a simple delivery into a whole experience. BMW offers a long 12 year warranty on the body of the car, 3 years on the paintwork and 2 years on the rest with no maximum amount of kilometres used. Furthermore there are programmes that allow you to extend the warranty beyond this time for a premium. Every consumer has access to the BMW group Service Center which can be phoned 24/7 and is free of charge. BMW also offers BMW Financial Services, which is a lease and financing company. They offer lease agreements but also insurance, not only on cars but they even offer home or travel insurance. To summarize BMW produces high quality products which have a few characteristics they are well known for. There are many factors in which BMW has a great product strategy but the most notable factors would be driving quality, BMWs offer a high degree of performance in its cars. Also one very important factor is its technology, most notably EfficientDynamics through which BMW manages to lower fuel consumption and emissions without compromising the quality driving it is known for. There is also the design which characterises its cars as typical BMW and last but not least the high level of support services. Miscellaneous One of the biggest issues global society is facing is global warming, this is especially important in the automotive industry as their products play a (large) part in this issue. Car manufacturers face a bit of a paradox, their product is inherently harmful to the environment yet at the same time they try to be as environmentally conscious as possible. BMW not only tries to be environmentally conscious in their products they also strive to be this in their organisation. As stated on their website all BMW Group employees are guided by the ICCs Business Charter for Sustainable Development. Managers are stimulated to implement environmental guidelines and convey this message onto their employees. Just some examples are reducing the amount of paperwork that goes with every car as it goes down the production-line in the factory to reduce the amount of paper used. Turning off unused factory equipment in the weekends. Grouping the production of same coloured cars together so that the painting equipment has to be cleaned and sterilized less often. BMW Group acknowledges its responsibilities and commits to apply latest the technologies in order to enhance safety and lower fuel consumption and noise and exhaust emissions. As stated previously BMW applies Design for Recycling in which at the design stage there is already being accounted for optimizing the recycling process. BMW also is developing alternative fuel technologies such as BMW CleanEnergy which allows for the use of liquid hydrogen as a fuel. Furthermore BMW Group suppliers are required to adhere to the standards which BMW applies to its organisation and products. It is through technologies such as BMW Efficient Dynamics that the consumer is actually experiencing a lower fuel consumption and lower emissions. All of this achieved through lightweight construction, energy management and modern technology. For example in the Netherlands BMW has 129 models which have a green label, greener labels in turn allow for lower costs for the car. To summarize, although BMWs product is harmful to the environment they try to minimize this through the use of company-wide policies and design philosophy to ensure environmentally conscious production and technology to minimize fuel consumption and emissions. Sources Essentials of Global Marketing Svend Hollensen http://www.bmw.com/com/en/insights/overview.html http://www.bmw-warranty.co.uk/Pages/Information.aspx?page=Products/Comparison.htm http://www.bmwusa.com/Standard/Content/Owner/BMWUltimateService/Warranty.aspx http://www.bmw.co.uk/bmwuk/about/corp/environment http://www.bmwusfactory.com/Environment.aspx?id=282

The Battle of New Orleans: Jimmie Driftwood Essay -- heroes, trials, g

Throughout history courageous, unselfish, sacrificial acts have described ‘heroes’ as unique individuals that served their communities above and beyond the norm. Song lyrics from the 1930s to 1970s have praised and denounced heroic actions found in songs by Jimmie Driftwood, The Battle of New Orleans (1936), and Mitch Murray and Peter Callander’s, Billy Don’t Be A Hero (1974) along with songs like John Henry (1870), John Brown’s Body (1861), and many others. Humanity craves heroes regardless of the culture or worldview people need to have something or someone to worship, admire, emulate, or detest; Joseph Campbell attempts and succeeds in describing in detail the arduous journey one must survive and endure to be reborn through the world navel and become the hero. Whether the hero is a favorite sports figure or singer/song writer or movie/television star or just a simple mom/dad trying to do the best they can for their children each has undergone mom ents of despair while in the dark valleys or exaltation of the mountain top to become the hero in the eye of the public or within the soul of themselves. â€Å"And so every one of us shares the supreme ordeal---carries the cross of the redeemer—not in the bright moments of his tribe’s great victories, but in the silences of his personal despair† (Campbell, 337). As can be seen in the story of Jonah as related in the second chapter of Jonah in the King James Version: â€Å"Then Jonah prayed unto the LORD his God out of the fish's belly, 2 And said, I cried by reason of mine affliction unto the LORD, and he heard me; out of the belly of hell cried I, and thou heardest my voice. 3 For thou hadst cast me into the deep, in the midst of the seas; and the floods compassed me about: all thy billows a... ...ous and barbaric by our genteel Methodists, yet by those noble ‘savages’ their gods were beautiful beyond measure. â€Å"Hence the figures worshiped in the temples of the world are by no means always beautiful, always benign, or even necessarily virtuous. Like the deity of the Book of Job, they fare transcend the scales of human value† (Campbell, 35). Earnest Their of Rockwood, Tennessee stated: â€Å"One man’s junk is another man’s treasure.† Same could be applied to the faces of the gods or heroes. Trials and tribulations, what doesn’t kill us makes us stronger, in for a penny in for a pound, and dynamite comes in small packages are a few idioms from the lexicons of the people of earth describing the ordeals one must faithfully endure to overcome in the end and join the ranks of the heroes with a thousand faces. Works Cited Campbell, Joseph The Hero with a Thousand Faces

The English Reformation Essay -- Literary Analysis, Dickens

The book I chose to review for this assignment is entitled The English Reformation by author A. G. Dickens. The book describes the processes that led to religious transformations and provides an excellent overview on the Reformation in England. The work thoroughly analyzes the political, economical and social aspects of the Reformation in the sixteenth century. The English Reformation, first published in 1964 is a great source of information for anyone who is interested in the history of the religious transition and change. The author of The English Reformation aims to analyze and explain the complex processes that have taken place during the reign of Henry VIII and his successors. He investigates the background and defines conditions for the religious transformation. A. G. Dickens set out to carefully examine the complex processes of the English Reformation by describing the state of the religious affairs in the late medieval England. He believes that traditional catholic religion was to some extent based on superstitious beliefs and folk‘s legends. He begins his book by telling a story of a knight who robs passing travelers but maintains a pious vigil to Virgin Mary. His devotion to Holy Mother professed by his daily prayers saves him physically and spiritually. The knight is warned of the mortal danger and allowed to change his conducts. It seems that these kinds of legends mixed with Christian sentiments were commonly absorbed by people. A. G. Dickens writes: â€Å"†¦its e ffort to attain salvation through devout observance, its fantastic emphasis on saints, relics and pilgrimages...† (4). These views were contrasted with the ideas of Lollards and the teachings of John Wycliffe. Their emphasis on sole aut... ...n that Lollardy consists mainly of artisans and tradesmen. It seems that the rebellious ideas might have originated with educated individuals but were propagated by commoners. A. G. Dickens proves that social and economic prominence was significant in spreading the protestant ideas. He writes: â€Å"Tudor provincial society contained large mobile elements and the part played by wandering cloth-workers in the dissemination of heresy has already been observed.†(33). The English Reformation by A. G. Dickens is an extensive and thorough account of the political and religious reality of sixteenth century England. The work examines and describes all processes that led to the religious transformation. The great events of the Henry’s reign are explained carefully, comprehensively and clearly, making the work highly regarded analysis of the English Reformation.

Mass marketing

Mass marketing is the process involved in presenting products to the general public using the mass media such as primetime television, radio, national newspapers, or magazines of general circulation.   This is usually done with products which appeal to or perceived to be useful to people from all walks of life such as toothpaste, laundry detergent, or headache pill.   This is referred to as the traditional method of marketing and was in use long before specialized or target-specific products came into being. Compared to the concept of direct marketing, mass marketing is more expensive because it utilizes the traditional mass media which get through to a wider range of audience.   For instance, it was estimated that in the 1960s, a single television spot aired simultaneously over the three television stations CBS, ABC, and NBC could already get a message across to 80% of women in the United States. (Bianco, Lowry, Berner, Arndt, Grover. 2004) Direct marketing, on the other hand, is a relatively new method in marketing where the target customers are contacted directly through mail, electronic mail, or the telephone.   This method relies heavily on a customer list created, maintained, and regularly updated by a company or an advertising firm for the purpose.   Organizations who are engaged in this method claim that their marketing efforts are measurable in terms of responses they receive from their targets. The system also allows them to conduct follow-ups in order to consummate sales, or extend after-sale services such as maintenance assistance or performance rating of their products.   Basically, direct marketing allows you to â€Å"focus limited resources where they are most likely to produce results; measure the success of campaigns accurately by analyzing responses; and test your marketing – you can target a representative sample of your target audience and see what delivers the best response rates before developing a full campaign.† (Business Link)   The concept is catching fire. The result of a transatlantic survey of over 500 direct marketers and service providers conducted in 2006 and released January 11, 2007, showed that â€Å"85% of respondents expect their online direct marketing expenditures to increase in 2007.† (Direct Marketing News) REFERENCES Bianco, A., T. Lowry, R. Berner, M. Arndt, & R. Grover. (2004). The Vanishing Mass Market. BusinessWeek online. (Retrieved from: http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_28/b3891001_mz001.htm) Business Link. Direct Marketing: the basics. (Retrieved from: http://www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotz/action/detail?r.l1=1073861169&r.13=1073902327&type=RESOURCES&itemID=1073790746&r.12=1073858842&r.s=sc) Direct Marketing News. â€Å"Alterian finds 85% of marketing and service providers plan to increase Online spending in 2007†. (Retrieved from: http://www.dmn.ca/Click/articles/vol109/vol109_b.htm)