Dramatism and Meet the Parents Essay

The theory of Burke’s dramatism provides another view of rhetoric analysis of symbolisms that have been utilized in the film. With this, the theory analyzes human relations, culture-usage, lingual properties, and the intentions and motives present within the act. The theory of dramatism by Kenneth Burke applies to the philosophical grounds of the movie, Meet the Parents. Hence, within this study, the main aim is to apply the theoretical concepts of Kenneth Burke in analyzing the proposed film, Meet the Parents. The theory presents itself in number of different arguments and contents. With the very concept of Burke presented in the theory of dramatism that states, â€Å"life is a stage where the drama continues†, he has proposed five components that guide the analysis of human intentions, culture and other symbols present within the drama. Burke contends that every act in every given scene should possess the appropriate purpose. He further emphasizes these subtheoretical components in his dramatism pentad. Within the film of â€Å"Meet the Parents†, various concepts of Burke’s theory have been portrayed. Under this theory, Burke bases the analysis under the concepts of philosophy and symbolical criticisms. From the angles of Greg Focker and her girl friend Pam Byrnes together with her family and relatives, each component of dramatism pentad forms an interacting drama throughout the film. In this study, the film is analyzed through the different components of Burke’s theory, namely: the dramatism pentad, and the implications of human relations, culture and language. Discussion Theoretical Explanation of Kenneth Burke’s Theory of Dramatism Dramatisim Methodology The concept of dramatism involves the concept of Shakespearian idealism of â€Å"world stage† wherein it considers the realistic events or practical applications of real life scenario. As for Kenneth Burke, the theoretical framework considers the world as a drama wherein real-life scenarios are placed into a theatrical presentation. The methodology of dramatism incorporates analysis and reviewing of human relations and their motives. As supported by the Gusfield (1989), dramatism is designed to show that the most direct route to the study of human relations and human motives is via a methodical inquiry into cycles or clusters of terms and their functions (p. 135). Under this consideration, the study identifies the function of dramatism framework as an approach in emphasizing the act of language symbolism that illustrates the conception of man and of human relations. The dramatism methodology is an ideal point of perspective to analyze human acts, relations, and motives in the subjects of philosophy, political science, economics, religion, literature and arts. Upon implementation, the theory suggests the importance of determining of the following variables in order to analyze the components of human acts, relations, and motives: these are speech used, the writing, and the artistic styles present. According to the book of Kennedy (1989), Burke exercises his dramatism primarily upon acts that produces written texts, although he approaches all human actions as essentially dramatic and active, having a dynamic and being analyzable in the same terms (p. 100). Even with a static and immutable character of a play, the theory of dramatism considers the presence of dynamic, changeable and elusive components that maybe present within such plays. The dramatism form of analysis considers the inquiries: â€Å"what are involved in the play? What are the people doing in it? And, why are they doing these acts? † (with this, the pentad form of analysis can be considered). Burke’s dramatism analyzes the content and thoughts of the drama though philosophical and conceptual framework. Dramatism is commonly placed alongside classical rhetoric and tagmemics as one of the standard heuristic methods of invention. The analogy of Burke’s argument provides the thought that in every actions human make, there is always an incorporation of motives or intentions. Through critical analysis under the components of pentad, these motives of actions can be revealed. Under the concept of how drama proceeds, Burke considers the need for participants in order to establish the act. The theory of dramatism considers the human world as the continued version of what has occurred in a drama; hence, calling this perspective as the rhetoric of drama. According to Styan (1992), Burke holds that man tries to control and humanize his world by means of symbolism. Symbols and symbolic structures in art are not only typically human, but all forms of symbolism must be derived ultimately from the senses (p. 4). Burke believes that the concept of symbolism can be applied in the context of human intentions like the ones present in the theatrical drama presentations. It is not surprising since his concepts are very much related to the belief that reality is just the continuity of the drama. With these principles of dramatism methodology, he has proposed five components to instruct the appropriate pattern analyzing given subjects under the concept of dramatism. Dramatism Pentad: Personalization and Depersonalization The concept of Burke ties the two perspectives of personalization and depersonalization. Burke is considering the subject of personification as part of the theatrical drama. These components should be considered in the dramatization method as well. In addition, the theory of dramatization incorporates the ideas of act, agent, scene, agency and purpose that are all incorporated to the aspects of personification. According to Krasner and Saltz (2006), dramatism is not limited in a spatial sense, as if there were one sphere to which it can be comfortably applied and a second sphere from which it should be kept away (p. 53). With this, the theoretical framework of Burke does not consider the non-personal components under the act, agent, scene, agency and purpose; hence, he has conceptualized the idea of non-dramatist. The concept of non-dramatist is limited compared to the dramatist personification, which gives birth to the concept of outer limit in a double term scene. Within the aspect of personalization, the concept of dramatism centers into critical observation of the drama’s five components: act, agent, scene, agency and purpose. In order for an act to appear, an agent must be present to perform this act within the coverage of scene. In order to facilitate and implement the acting within the scene, the agent needs to utilize various agencies that should enable the requirements of acting. The full realization of the act is then realized by providing the appropriate and pre-determined purpose within the act. The five elements that composed the theoretical foundation of dramatism are known as the â€Å"dramatism pentad†. In every term of the pentad, significant type of analysis can be employed through the means of ratio, such as â€Å"Scene-Act Ratio† or the â€Å"Scene-agent ratio†, which interlinks different variables present in the pentad (Kennedy, 1989 p. 100). In Burke’s dramatism pentad, every component should always be present in every given act in order to acquire significance and utility. In the perspective of dramatism, these pentad components are related and form part of the entire thought of the given drama; hence, every component is associated to one another. Human Interaction: Language and Culture The theory of dramatism emphasizes the use of language in facilitating communication and interaction. In addition, the theory understands the social actors possess different cultural and language variations that need to be considered in interaction. As according to Emmelman (2003), Burke’s dramatism considers the angles of cultural domains and language systems under the social actors that behave according to their cultural and social hierarchies (p. 5). The concept of theoretical Dramatism has been considered part of the influential modern rhetoric that attracted sufficient adherents and influenced the conditions of rhetoric in the twenty-first century. As according to Burke’s definition, the concept of Dramatism is a method of analysis and a corresponding critique of terminology designed to show that the most direct route to the study of human relations and human motives is via methodical inquiry into cycles or clusters of terms and their functions is a loosely constructed theory (Benoit, Hample and Benoit, 1992 p. 279). Burke in his theory considers man as an animal that is characterized by symbolic action that identifies itself within the context of language use. Burke considers language, cultural origin and the history of the agent as important symbolisms that provide the message and theme of the drama. Theoretical Application in the Film â€Å"Meet the Parents† Film Overview With the overview of the film, the study obtains the elements portraying the possible parts of the dramatism analysis. The story of â€Å"Meet the Parents† revolves in the two characters Greg Focker and her girlfriend, Pam Byrnes. The couple is actually planning to have their wedding the soonest possible time; hence, as part of tradition, Focker tries to foster some sort of familial attachments to his fiance’s family. In doing so, Focker has been confronted by the relatives of Byrne, including his fiance’s ex-boyfriend and the annoying cat. Being a type of family that is over-protective and amazingly paranoid, Pam’s family intensively tests the credibility of Focker as the rightful man for their daughter. The protagonist is somehow confronted by the Byrneses’ interrogative actions towards him. Unfortunately, the father of Pam, Jack Byrnes, has been part of the CIA investigatory team, who somehow brought Focker in the extensive examination. Despite of the troublesome scenario that Focker is facing, he is aware that this is all part of the test in order to acquire the hands of Pam. Hence, he is determined to do all his best to please and establish a good image towards his family. However, with his frequent attempts, Focker always ends up being ignored or placed in a more complicated scenario. In the film, Focker has realized the virtue that he learned from Jack, which is the Circle of Trust. This idea has facilitated the value and resolution between the courting and doubting parties. Within the circle, Focker and Jack are able to foster trust and relationship that in the end paved the way for another task, which is to meet the Fockers. In the concept of dramatism, the ending of the film provides a notion of practical continuity of the drama. Application of Dramatism Pentad Act In application of the first level of the dramatism theory, the act component presented in the film institutes the element of family versus couple’s plan of marriage. This is a typical scenario in the reality setting wherein the male is confronted by interrogations of family members, which is most commonly from the woman’s side. In this category, the main act of Jack Byrne is to initially counter the desire of Focker to marry their daughter, Pam. On the other hand, the act of Focker is to pursue the reward, that he wants to claim, which is his marriage to Pam. Despite of his efforts and negative impression towards the family of Pam, Focker manages to build some sense of rapport towards the family of Byrnes, while Jack uses this as an advantage for further his investigation on Focker’s identity and intention. The overall act of the film does not actually revolve in a quarrel between the woman’s family against Greg Focker, but rather, the act only shows the attitude of over-protectiveness of the family and tradition that they are following. Agent The agents presented within the film, mainly Greg Focker, Pam Byrnes and Jack Byrnes, facilitates the act. These characters possess different roles and perspectives in terms of rightful marriage and the obligations of establishing a relationship. The agent Focker possesses the personality of perseverance and focus in his goal for marriage. Pam Byrnes, on the other hand, has acquired the role of a clueless fiance in terms of the dispute occurring between her father and Greg. Lastly, the agent Jack Byrnes serves as the main antagonist of the film that facilitates the act of examining Focker’s credentials and candidacy for their daughter. Scene The scene of the film involves the two parties, the Focker and Byrnes, under the traditional setting of family introduction prior to marriage. The scenario in the film provides the aspect of human relationships and the type of culture being employed within the film itself. Somehow, the scenes provide an idealistic perspective on what men and women should do prior to marriage. However, within the context of the film, the incorporation of exaggerations (e. g. the examinations instituted by Jack, the character backgrounds employed within the film – Jack being CIA, etc. ) have given the scene some property of comedy out of the tradition theme that it aims to portray. Hence, the scene of the movie provides the traditional content in a comedy approach, which is facilitated by the agents present in the film. Agency As with the theory of dramatism, the component of agency facilitates the means for the agents to implement their acts. Within the novel, there are three possible agencies that have been utilized in order to illustrate the act of the three main agents: (a) For Greg, he is able to facilitate his act as the one being scrutinized by his’ fiance’s family by his decision of meeting the Byrne family; (b) For Pam, she is able to facilitate her act of being the clueless fiance by her distinct attachment towards Greg (being his fiance) and Jack (being the favorite of her father), which has given her the idea that everything is getting smooth with the two of them; (c) lastly, Jack earns his role of being the detective of her daughter’s fiance, which has been facilitated through his background of being under the CIA profession. Purpose As per analysis of the overall plot of the story, the story illustrates its very purpose by conveying the message of how the traditional scenario should be for a family introduction in couples who are planning to get married. Somehow, the story incorporates th e sense of comedy for the sake of entertainment. It has utilized some sorts of exaggerations in the characters of Jack and Greg in order to provide the aspect of their theme of comedy. Meanwhile, the message of the story is the tradition of marriage wherein the family, most especially the father of the woman, scrutinizes the man before he allows his daughter to be married. It may sometimes be as complex as shown in the movie but not that exaggerated since the movie somehow incorporates almost impossible events. Application of Human Relations, Culture and Language In application of the other concepts of the theory, the components of human relations, culture and language are illustrated in diverse forms within the story. Evidently, the form employed by the film to demonstrate human relations is by the multi-links present between Greg Focker and the Byrne family. Meanwhile, the culture presented in the film is the traditional concept of marriage employed by American from the past up until today. Lastly, to further agree with the traditions and culture the film have presented, the lingual use of American English – between the colloquial (Focker) and Byrnes (Formal) – has somehow provided a realistic features for the two opposing parties in the film. Conclusion In the conclusion of this study, the discussion has included the theoretical frameworks of dramatism by Kenneth Burke and the film Meet the Parents. The thesis of the study subjects the application of Burke’s theory of dramatism to the film Meet the Parents. As per the discussion of the theory, the concept of dramatism has involved different subcomponents that serve as guide in analyzing the human intentions, cultural background and lingual properties of the drama. The theory of dramatism moves in the idea of Shakespearean thought of the world as a stage; hence, it has provided five subcomponents to guide the critical analysis of a drama under the rhetoric philosophy. These five subcomponents involve act, agent, scene, agency and purpose, which are all interrelated and should be present in any given drama. As per application of the theory in the given film, Meet the Parents is able to acquire all these subcomponents mainly through the character symbolisms of Greg Focker, Pam Byrne and Jack Byrne. The act of the film involves the argument between the two parties due to the decision of marriage by Greg and Pam. As part of the traditional American culture in the ideal family scenery, the film has incorporated the need for family introduction prior to marriage. However, with the diverse agencies present in the characters, the act of employing intensive examination towards the male has been portrayed. Although, the film has incorporated some aspects of exaggerations for the sake of entertainment and comedy, it was still able to relay its purpose in the message of how an American family of the female treats male whenever a family introduction is initiated. Reference Benoit, W. L. , Hample, D. , & Benoit, P. J. (1992). Readings in Argumentation. Walter de Gruyter. Emmelman, D. S. (2003). Justice for the Poor: A Study of Criminal Defense Work. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. Gusfield, J. R. (1989). On symbols and society. University of Chicago Press. Kennedy, M. (1989). Theorizing Composition: A Critical Sourcebook of Theory and Scholarship in Contemporary Compositions. Greenwood Publishing Group. Krasner, D. S. , & Saltz, D. (2006). Staging Philosophy: Intersections of Theater, Performance, and Philosophy. University of Michigan Press. Styan, J. L. (1992). Modern Drama in Theory and Practice. Cambridge University Press.

Importance of Criminal Justice Administration

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Differences between online and traditional marketing Research Paper

Differences between online and traditional marketing - Research Paper Example Although it is referred to as traditional, it is still commonly used by both the local and international businesses in order to pass a message to the customers. Some of the common traditional marketing strategies include use of radio, newspapers, magazines, television, etc. Other common methods that are still used include direct mail and referral (Singh, 2010). However, this form of advertising is being replaced by the online marketing. This paper will therefore discuss the major differences between online and traditional marketing. Online marketing can be able to reach a large geographical location. With the penetration of the internet in the global market, companies can be able to reach customers who are located in different parts of the world using an online platform. For instance, social media can reach customers all over the world irrespective of their geographical location. However, this is not the case with traditional marketing. Traditional marketing can only be able to reach customers who are located in areas that are covered with the media used. For instance, when a marketer uses a local media, either print or audio, the message can only reach the customers who are located in this geographical location (Singh, 2010). As a result, traditional marketing is more limited in comparison with online marketing. Online marketing is cheaper than traditional marketing. The cost of using internet has reduced tremendously over the years. This has resulted from increased levels of competition among the internet providers. Furthermore, with the current technological changes, more people have been able to get access to gadgets such as smart phones, tablets, and ipads which has made it easy for them to get access to the internet. As a result, many people can now get information concerning the existence of a certain product or service in the market at ease. The cost of using the online platform to pass the message to the customers is very low. For

Effects of divorce on children Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Effects of divorce on children - Essay Example It is obvious that no parent likes to experience the divorce, so why would they want their child do experience it Regretfully, divorce is quite common in present-day society, but researchers have proved that there is a negative impact on the children and their future. A lot of children do not recover from a divorce and their inability to cope with it affects their relationships later on. When parents decide that they will have a divorce, it is not in happiness as most children seem to feel. A recently divorce man/woman will feel a loss concerning their spouse and their marriage. There is also a sense of relief that the faade is over and they can start healing themselves against the pain and suffering they were going through. For those people that do not have children is easier to avoid each other as they will have no strings attached and are in a sense 'free', but those with children need to adjust to their setting quickly and then help their children with the process and help them understand the reason so there are not negative effects of feelings. With or without the divorce, almost all parents want their child to do well but research again shows that children from divorced family do worse, some of them repeat a grade and have a 5% more chance of being expelled. Younger children become more dependent, demanding, unaffectionate and disobedient than children from patched families. They are terrified of being left alone or being unloved, therefore carrying these problems with them to school as well as start using drugs, get into violence, try to commit suicide and have children out of wedlock. Some children believe that they are the source of the divorce because of their misbehavior, due to which children just shut down and keep their feelings to themselves, losing the friends they have and creating a shell around them that doesn't let anyone in. Some effects of children in divorced families are: Being poor Problems in school - lower grades, being held back, dropping out Poor health Higher probability of abuse, mental illness, criminal behavior and early sexual activity Feeling of loss over one parent's absence due to divorce Risk of being abused Impulsive and impatient behavior Anger at others Oppositional, rebellious, defiant, or conduct problems Breaking rules and testing limits Destructive behavior Anger at self Self-blame or guilt Self-destructive or self-harming behavior Apathy or failure to accept responsibility Isolation and Withdrawal Becoming divorced themselves someday Yearly, over 1 million American children experience the tragedy of divorce, and half the children that are born within the year will have parents who will divorce before they turn 18. American society has to teach it citizens that marriage is the best surroundings in which to raise healthy, happy children who reach their potential and family is the essential item for a social well-being. The best thing that parents can do for their child while the divorce is to assure them that the divorce is not the child's fault and to tell them constantly assure them that they are loved by both parents and the relationship with either parent will not be

Northern Emancipation 1783 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Northern Emancipation 1783 - Essay Example Both the religious leaders and the revolutionist were instrumental and played important role in the events that finally lead to emancipation of the north in1783 (Fiske, 2003). During this time, the African Americans were freed through escape, legal petitions and cases and manumission and hence the process did not take place in a fortnight but was a gradual process. However, one of the reasons for freedom of the African Americans was that the slavery was not economical like the other parts of the America because there were very few firms while the immigrant’s work force was on the higher end. The uneconomical; nature of slavery together with the efforts of the revolutionists enlightened the most people of the north and their moral views on slavery begun to change gradually. This was also coupled with the push for wage labor by the market economy because of the higher immigrants and low agricultural productivity (Fiske, 2003). As observed by Fiske (2003), in the north, the slave ry begun to wither because the slave-owners realized that slavery was impractical due to the agricultural limitations as well as the lack of plantation agriculture that was witnessed in other parts of the nation. This was also accompanied by the non agrarian economic activities that made it even difficult to practice agricultural activities in the region. This resulted into the increase in the other forms of entrepreneurship and hence slavery was becoming irrelevant. Slaves were looked at as liabilities for the owners but were no longer viewed as important assets. As a result there was a shift in the economy of the northern part of the nation. These economic changes forced the slave owners to abandon their slavery. According to Ludlow (1862), this happened because â€Å"the slave owners were forced to confront their own hypocrisy, having born witness to the heroic efforts of black patriots during the revolution, chose to abandon slavery on economic and moral grounds. Most of the bl acks had participated in the colony’s struggle for freedom and hence it was immoral for the white to keep them as slaves while they had shown their patriotism to the nation while they struggled for independence. The blacks were mainly influenced by the Jefferson’s discourse on the natural rights and liberty (Ludlow, 1862). As a result of this, many whites in the north took the issue of rights and liberty seriously and hence begun to emancipate their slaves while the revolutionary war was heightened. Because of these efforts and revolutionary influences, Vermont became the first to abolish slavery in the north during the year 1777. This was then followed by Massachusetts in the year 1783 which resulted into the ending of slavery in many other states that were practicing slavery. Other states that followed were Rhode Island and Connecticut in the year 1784. New York and New Jersey abolished slavery in the years 1785 and 1786 respectively (Ludlow, 1862). This indicates th at the lack of agricultural productivity only did not influence the abolishment of slavery trade but there were also some important revolutionary influences. Jefferson played an important role in the process since he initiated a discourse that would finally lead to the change in perception and the views of the northern whites with regard to slavery activities. The northern emancipation was however very unique and special compared to the other end of slavery

Gentlemans Agreement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Gentlemans Agreement - Essay Example For example, if an employee at a company says they will get you a job and you have nothing to worry about, this is an example of a gentleman's agreement. However if they are unable to get you the job then you have no legal recourse" (Free Dictionary, 2008, pg. 1). The Law Encyclopedia (2008, pg. 1) says that "Although agreements between individuals often create legally binding commitments, instances may arise in which mutual promises yield no legally enforceable agreement. Sometimes called "gentlemen's agreements," parties may honor them because moral obligations compel observance or because future relations will be more difficult if the present arrangement is broken. International organizations likewise may depend on such informal arrangements so as to maintain comity among members" and that "Occasionally the enabling treaties that create an international organization will leave some procedural or voting matter unresolved. Rather than amend the formal document, which is usually a difficult task, an informal working agreement will develop to resolve a particular problem.

Charlie’s Wedding, A Play in One Act Essay Example for Free

Charlie’s Wedding, A Play in One Act Essay Gertie, a black woman, dressed in elegant black satin, stands at the window, her back to the audience. She may be polishing the glass or she may be eves-dropping on the two fashionably dressed white ladies, Mona and Sheila, who sit on a divan directly behind her, facing the audience. Mona: What on earth did he say then, Sheila? Sheila, (smiling coyly): He said he wants to marry me, of course, silly. Mona: But he can’t do that†¦can he? I mean†¦(a pause) Well†¦ you know what I mean. Men like him†¦ Sheila: That’s just the point†¦ men like him†¦they can do whatever they want. Mona: Well, I’m just saying†¦they don’t buy a cow when the milk is so cheap. Sheila: Well, he might buy the cow that gives milk as good as this one does. Mona feigns embarrassment, her hands going to her face as she buries her head in her hands for a moment. Gertie moves to the right and looks at pictures in frames on the mantle of the fireplace, now obviously listening, cocking her head to hear better. Mona: Girl, you have no shame. (Giggles) But you are about to graduate from here anyway. You don’t have to marry, you don’t have to do anything but pack your bags and run, girl. Sheila: But I might just want to get married. Isn’t it what every young lady is reared to do? Aren’t we born and bred to be the wives and ornaments of powerful men? Isn’t it my duty as a woman? Isn’t it my calling? My raison d’etre? (Misprounounces the words) Mona: If it’s what you want, then by all means you should do it. Be my guest. I will dance at your wedding with a cow-bell on. But it’s not going to be to that two-timing Charlie O’Brian, I surely do hope, child. Gertie moves until she is standing at the side of Sheila, picks up a small bowl from the end table and is wiping it slowly. Sheila: Well how can you be so presumptuous? I mean, what do you know about it anyway? And why do you say he is a two-timer? If you know some gossip that I don’t then you are bound by your duty as a woman to tell me. Gertie puts down the bowl and speaks: Yes, Miss Mona, do tell all you know about this two-timing Charlie O’Brian. Do you have some reason to suspect he may not be as morally upright and Christianified as he purports to be? Is he, perhaps†¦a†¦man of low degree? The three women laugh and Gertie takes a seat in the chair, in profile to the audience, putting her feet up on a ottoman and fanning herself from her labor. Gertie: Let me tell you about men all men. They are idiots†¦all idiots, and Charlie O’Brian is their Lizard King. They are all just big boys. They never grow up and they never think with the head they have on their shoulders. I know you can guess which head it is that they do think with, without me having to say. But they control the money and politics and they control the laws and we have to work around them to get what we want. Now, as for this Charlie O’Brian, he has proposed to half the women in this sorority and that is a natural fact. He got big drunk last Christmas and asked me to run off with him. I told him that for twenty dollars I would run into the pantry with him for a spell, but that is all of the running I meant to do. Child, no man is ever faithful to no woman and I will tell you how you can be sure of what a man is up to. If you think he is faithful to you then he is most likely cheating on you. But if you think he is cheating on you, then he is positively cheating on you. And you can take that to the bank, honey. Sheila: We all know how men are. But Charlie is different. He loves me. He really does Gertie: Sugar, last year he loved Abbie, and the year before that he loved Sara Lynn. He loves a lot of ladies. And lots of ladies love him. But ain’t none of them ever got a brand on his li’l narrow behind. Mona laughs: Gertie, you are such a romantic soul. But you are wrong about Charlie boy. He loves a lot of women but he don’t love any of them. We all know about commercial affection. That’s why there are sporting houses and sporting ladies who can be found in them, and men know all them and they go sow their wild oats and then pray for a crop failure. Charlie O’Brian haunts sporting houses. He is a sporting man. He is going to leave you crying. Sheila looks at Mona, irritated: Well Miss Know It All, that just proves my point, because men don’t marry sporting ladies do they? They marry good girls, from good families. They marry ladies of wit, breeding and sagacity. They go sow those wild oats but then when nesting time comes around they look for a woman who is better than any sporting lady. They look for someone who can entertain for them, can give them sons and can keep their home for them. I don’t care where my man gets his kicks so long as he kicks his boots off at home with me. I am a pragmatic person. I understand the ways of the world. I did not just fall of no turnip truck, and believe it or not, I did not come to this town riding two to the mule. Mona looks at Gertie who shrugs her shoulders, then speaks: Honey, you are missing one very important point. You are too good for Charlie O’Brian. He is beneath you and that’s a fact. You will never be happy with someone like him. He is common as dirt. He is in the trades. He will keep you filled up with a belly-full of children and leave you barefoot and pregnant. He is not good enough for you. Get him out of your pretty little empty head. Now, lets discuss this party, we have to finish these plans. We are really getting short of time now. Christmas will be here before you know it and we can’t wait til the very last minute. Gertie stands and picks up her dust cloth and moves behind the divan, facing the audience, looking down at the other two girls: This party is going to be such a bore. Boy girl, boy girl, boy girl†¦so boring. We should invite some transvestites and some of them folk what you call hermaphrodites of both sexes and let everyone try to guess who is who and who has what and just see how that messes up the seating arrangements. (Laughs) Mona: That would make it a party to remember. Do you know any real transvestites? Oh, I’m sure you do. You are so worldly, Gertie. (Mona and Sheila laugh) Sheila: Well, I’m more interested in making wedding plans than Christmas party plans. I want the wedding to be here. Right in this room. We’ve all have had so much fun here, and there are so many good memories associated with this room. Yes, I’ve made my mind up. I want to come down those stairs (points off stage, left) and I want all my friends to be here and see me on the happiest day of my life. Gertie: Girl, you are serious? You said yes to Charlie O’Brian? Sheila nods and speaks: I told him last night. He said he wants to marry me on New Year’s Eve. I told him I was going to go away for the holidays but he asked me to stay in town. It’s official. I told him I will marry him on New Year’s Eve, just like he wants me to. Mona: Sheila, please, listen to me. Charlie O’Brian is no good. I would never say a word to harm you but I can’t sit here and watch you just dash headlong off of no cliff. He is not the man you think he is. He is not a good person. He is a liar and a fake and he will end up dead or in prison and he will drag you down with him. You are too fine a person to make such a terrible match. You just can’t let yourself sink to his level. Sheila: Mona, please. Why are you doing this? What have I ever done to you that you would disrespect me so much? Charlie is the only man who has ever treated me with any of the common courtesies. He doesn’t paw me, or try to kiss me when we are alone. He behaves like the perfect gentleman. Gertie puts down her dust cloth and moves back to her chair, She pulls it closer to the divan and sits down, leaning forward conspiratorially: Sheila, child, I may be out of place to say this, but Mona is right. That Charlie O’Brian is bad news. Don’t you know he got into a fight with a man over a card game? In a public place? He is one step from disaster all the time. He is a common ruffian when he is drunk and he is drunk most all of the times. He can’t be trusted any further than you could toss a bull by the tail. He is a daddy’s boy and won’t ever be nothing that his daddy don’t let him be. Hasn’t your schooling here taught you anything? It seems at least you would have learned to read men. Child, I’m saying this for your own good, Mona is right, you can’t marry that Charlie fellow. He is not good enough for you. I beg of you to reconsider your answer and tell that Mister O’Brian that you have reconsidered and you find that you cannot become his wife. Sheila buries her face in her hands sobbing Mona leans forward to comfort her, but Gertie gestures for her to stop Gertie: Child, I am sorry that I have made you feel bad but the simple fact is that you have to recognize that what Mona and I are telling you is for your own good and it is the gospel truth. Sheila stands: I don’t want to hear anymore of this. I don’t know how you figure that Charlie is not good enough for me. He has a good position in his father’s business and he can take care of me. I know that it’s not considered proper but he and I have discussed finances. I have agreed to put my trust money into a business proposal which he has become interested in. He is sure it will put us on easy street and I believe in him and I believe in his ideas. His father will finance half of it and I am going to put in the balance. But most importantly, ladies, he loves me passionately. We have spoken of our future together and we have decided to marry quickly without any long engagements. You ladies know I was orphaned and this sorority is what I reckon as my family. It’s the only family I have ever really had. You are all as close to me as blood sisters could be and I do appreciate you trying to look out for my best interest. But you just don’t know Charlie O’Brian like I know him. He wants me for the rest of his life and I want him the same. Sheila walks slowly out of the room, stage left: Gertie, to Mona, in a soft voice: What are we to do? Mona: What can we do? Gertie: Has she lost her mind or is she just yanking our chain? I swear I can’t get a fix on what she is thinking. But I’m prone to think she is believes this. That he is going to marry her. My god, this will destroy her if that is the case. Can we get Miss Edith to ban him? Keep him out of here? Mona: Miss Edith? Ban a paying customer? Are you a crack ho? Gimme a taste of what you is using. I don’t want no whole one†¦ just gimme a li’l taste, girl. Gertie laughs, then speaks: If he came in here and beat her up†¦if he broke her ribs, Miss Edith would ban him. Why let him break her heart? Mona: How long has she been here? Seriously? How can she believe anything a john tells her? She has served her indentures and is going to leave inside of six months with a nice piece of change. Hasn’t she learned anything? This has to be some kind of elaborate joke, don’t you think? You know how she has always been. How she calls us her sisters†¦how she call the house a sorority. She isn’t serious, and she isn’t putting on airs. It is just her way of coping with being a prostitute. But, lordy, what if she is smitten? What if she has fallen for the no good scalawag? Gertie: You want to know what Charlie O’Brian has in mind for a business deal? He wants to buy this house. Do you think he plans to get some funds out of her by saying he will marry her? Maybe we should tell Miss Edith all about this plan. Mona: No, I just had an inspiration. Why don’t we go the other way? Why not talk it up. Go overboard, all out in favor of it? Make it a matter of public record? Announce the engagement. Announce a big wedding right here on Christmas Eve? Let young Mister O’Brian put up or shut up? We just pretend we accept it as a done deal. We just go on with the wedding plans. Gertie giggles at the thought, then speaks: No! Wait†¦We are goin’ to be all decorated up for Christmas. We get Miss Edith to announce the imminent wedding when Charlie gets a few under his belt this coming Saturday night? We tell Miss Edith its just all a big joke on Charlie. We get the piano player to play Here Comes the Bride and let Sheila come down them stairs right there in a white gown. Charlie is all hat and no cattle but we can fix that. I know how. It looks like a win-win situation for us. He either backs out, and looks like a liar and a fool, or he goes ahead and marries a lady of the evening, which will cause his daddy to cut his manhood off so he can’t reproduce. (laughs) It would be so appropriate to have him look like a four-flusher or a fool in front of all his peers. We can get Parson Maybury to hang around just in case we need a few appropriate words†¦in case Charlie is drunk enough to do it. Oh my god, what I wouldn’t give to see him wake up the next morning married to Sheila. Mona: Miss Edith would never let us jack with a customer like that. Gertie: Not if she thinks we’re serious. But so long as we put it to her as an elaborate joke done in good honest fun It will be perfect for the holidays. We can convince her its entertainment and will bring in some new customers just to watch Charlie O’Brian marry a working girl. Arnie Harris works at City Hall. He will get me a blank marriage license if I ask him sweetly. We have good ol’ Harry on the piano. Todd Baker can take the wedding photos. Most of the men in this town dislike the O’Brians and would enjoy a good laugh at Charlie’s expense. You know, probably fifty per cent of the men in this town have gone up those stairs right there at some time in their life. (points) Then there is forty per cent of the men in this town who wish they could. Which leaves us with about ten percent who would like to take care of the 40 per cent who can’t make it, but that’s another story, but about ninety-five per cent of them do not like the O’Brians. Mona: Oh my god, girl, that would be the funniest thing I ever saw, to have spoilt, rich, pampered goodie two-shoes Charlie O’Brian married in the parlour of the finest House in all of New Orleans. And see the pictures spread all over the Sunday Times- Picayune†¦in the society section. We can make up a guest list. Include the governor’s name. Oh my god†¦girl, you’re a genius. (laughs). We don’t have to say they came, just say they was invited. Every man in town who is not an actual customer is fair game. Miss Edith would have our heads for revealing the names of actual customers but there ain’t no social taboo against revealing names of customers of the competition is there? Gertie: No, I would reckon they are fair game. Mona: We got to let Cloonie in on this. He can get some of the guys to go along with this. Bring in some tuxedos for the wedding party, for the pictures. Get a pen and paper, Gertie, we got to make a list of everything we need. I want it to be just perfect for Mister Charlie O’Brian’s wedding. What do you call them little fancy flowers men wear in their button hole? Well, we even want to get some of them. Oh yes, we have to do this up right. Charlie’s momma may want to send these pictures out to all the relatives who couldn’t actually make it to her son’s social event of the season, a whore-house wedding. Gertis: I’ll check to make sure, but Beaulah usually keeps some of that laudanum on hand for her croupe. If she is out she can get Doc Baines to send over a fresh bottle. Charlie will go to ordering his fancy little stemware glasses full of brandy and benedictine†¦he thinks that’s so posh†¦then he slips into that god-awful fake English accent and goes to calling himself Mister B and B. That sweet mess has such an odor about it that I could pour in a cup of creosote and he wouldn’t ever come close to tasting the difference. He sure won’t notice no dab of laudanum poured in. After a couple of shots of that stuff he will be cocked and primed. He will do what ever he is told to do, and smile while he is doing it. Mona: You know, there aren’t many of our customers who are disliked enough for us to pull this off on them. But Charlie O’Brian is pretty much universally thought to be a piece of human detritus. Everyone thinks he is a smarmy low life. This is perfect. Gertie: well, not totally perfect. We still aren’t sure where Sheila fits into all of this. What she is really thinking. Does she believe Charlie or is she just blowing smoke up our dresses to pass a cold winter day? Mona: Well†¦what difference is it? If she wants to marry him, she is going to end up married, with a ring and a license and she legally owns half his property as well. If she doesn’t, then we tell her it’s just all one big practical joke and we laugh about it. Gertie and Mona stand, Gertie speaks: That’s the thing I miss most about being in the sporting life. I miss the weddings. This is going to be some good fun. (Both women exit the stage, loudly humming The Wedding March)

Breast Cancer and Palliative Care Issues

Breast Cancer and Palliative Care Issues Hina Mirza The purpose of this writing is to highlight issues of the patient in palliative consideration, which a patient faced throughout the disease process and at terminal stage of illness. Moreover, it will drag one’s attention towards some strategies to deal patient with advance cancer. A 54 year old female with known case of ductal cell carcinoma of left breast, came to the hospital with the complaint of oozing and pain in fungating wound large in size present at the primary site of tumor. When I encountered the patient, she was very drowsy and unable to talk due to mouth ulcers that have been developed a week ago. Upon taking history from the patient’s attendants, they verbalize that the patient got breast cancer for 1.5 years and since then she was on homeopathic treatment. Moreover, the patient initially didn’t inform anyone about her disease, not even to her husband. Later, when symptoms got exacerbate she disclosed her problem to the family members. Consequently, she was taken to a cancer hospital, where a doctor recommended her for a biopsy. Thus, the results revealed breast carcinoma. Even after, she didn’t consult to the doctor and continued her homeopathic medication. While taking care of the patient, I got an opportunity to approach her about the reasons behind postponement in the diagnosis and the variables that make her condition decline. One of the reasons she gave in regards to not counseling a specialist or not having a legitimate treatment was monetary instability, an alternate reason was absence of awareness with respect to tumor treatment and misconceptions identified with its side effects. Besides, after a time of 1 year when her condition got crumble and a tumor in her breast uncovered as fungating wound, a relative took her again to the cancer hospital, from that point she was referred to the Baitul Sukoon for palliative consideration. The patient verbalizes torment because of mouth ulcers and as indicated by speciali sts her tumor has been metastasized to different parts of the body including liver and brain. Moreover, the patient likewise expressed that she will give priority to the treatment other than surgery on the grounds that she is afraid about losing her breast and it will alter her body image. In addition to it, the patient’s attendant stated that her nutrition pattern has been also effected which causes weakness. The patient was prepared and very much aware of her condition. For a week she has been on laxatives and as indicated by the specialist she had developed encephalopathy. Following 2 weeks of hospitalization; she died because of deteriorated condition. Breast cancer is a serious health issue among women throughout the world. According to a consultant at Shaukat Khanam Memorial Cancer Hospital, in Pakistan it is estimated that 1 in 9 women develops breast cancer once at any stage of their life. Cancer affects a person not only physically, but also cause spiritual, sexual, and psychological distress. When considering a physical domain of the patient in palliative care, she was suffering from pain and mouth ulcers which as a result altered her communication pattern. On the other hand, she was very drowsy, her dietary intake has also decreased and the patient has not passed stools for 2 days. Looking forward to the above mentioned symptoms firstly, mouth sore is among common indications in cancer patient in light of the fact that when patients are in critical condition, they lack oral hygiene as a result becomes more prone to infection. In addition to it, infections in cancer patients remain a major complication due to effects of malig nancy i.e. neutropenia. These patients require prompt antibiotics (Bodey, 2004). As the patient mentioned in the above scenario was getting augmentation. As indicated by literature, oral cavity plays a vital role in communication and dietary pattern and in cancer patient alterations in the oral cavity is common because of the certainty of diminished in preventive consideration (Eilers Million, 2011). Secondly, impaired oral cavity results in decreased intake of food that is critical at this stage of cancer. Decline in nutrition is considered normal at the terminal stage of life as a result malnutrition, cachexia is commonly found in patient with palliative care (Capra, ferguson, Ried, 2001). Thirdly, the patient was showing symptoms of encephalopathy. As literature evidenced that as an outcome of some metabolic disturbance, encephalopathy is a common clinical syndrome in cancer patients (Lore, Anne, Patrick, Simon, 2012). Relating it to the above scenario, the patient has been be d ridden for 2 months, not passing stool and she has been on laxative since 2 weeks. The purpose of giving laxative was to prevent hyper ammonia in the body which can cause encephalopathy. According to Willson, Nott, Broadbridge, Price (2013) hepatic encephalopathy as a result of liver infiltration is common among metastatic malignancy. Analyzing the psycho-social factors that becomes hindrance to care and approach to treatment as part palliative care were fear related to losing her breast, unawareness of the patient and her family members about disease and treatment options linked with socio-cultural barriers, financial issues, and preference towards alternative drugs i.e. homeopathic treatment. According to a research it was found that patients with breast cancer who consulted a doctor had fear of mastectomies. Firstly, the reason behind fear was lack of awareness about treatment option available for breast cancer such as procedures that are less invasive like lumpectomies. Due to the fact, women avoid availing proper check up and maintained non-compliance to the cancer therapy (Memon et al., 2013). Secondly, among socio-cultural barriers, lack of information related to disease due to low education reported by women. This ultimately delays the approach to health care, even with prominent signs and symptoms of a di sease such as nodule, edema and erythema. One of the reasons behind avoidance is social myths, society including friends and family gives different meaning to these symptoms, which minimize its seriousness. Moreover, cultural barriers have strong impact on getting awareness related to breast cancer. According to Banning, Hassan, Faisal, Hafeez (2010) many Asian women do not perform self breast examination because of a taboo related to touching own body parts, feeling embarrassment to discuss intimate body parts and to consult a male physician. According to literature myths around the pathology of breast cancer causes late diagnosis and hindrance to care (Goncalves et al., 2014). Thirdly, cancer treatment is considered financially devastating burden to the family because they have to pay for the treatment by themselves (Daher, 2012). Therefore, initiating treatment becomes psychologically distressing for the patient and for the family. Relating it to the scenario, the patient didnâ €™t disclose her problem to the family member due to myths and unawareness related to disease. Lastly, in my opinion the main factor that contributes to delay in diagnosis and worse the patient’s condition was preferences for homeopathic medicine and this again could be linked with lack of awareness related to the availability of treatment options. According to a research it’s commonly reported that individual with cancer seek alternative medicine due to misconception associated with treatment options (Daher, 2012). Moreover, unconventional methods, including traditional herbal medicine and healers over doctors for cancer treatment also reported in a study of women associated with delay seeking medical advice (Memon et al., 2013). Numerous factors contribute towards, delay and obstruction in treatment of breast malignancy. In terms of prioritize the variables that add to delay in diagnosis were unawareness related to the options available for treatment, socio-cultural hindrances, choosing alternative medicine, and financial issues. On individual level health professionals must respect autonomy of the patient and inclination of treatment. It is ones obligation to explain potential harm of such alternative treatment. Besides, when health care prrovider experience patients with breast tumor, they should explain its risk factors and preventive measures to the patient and their family members for precautionary purpose. On hospital level, staff should be well trained to deal cross culturally and care for the patient with interdisciplinary aspects and according to patients needs. These can include care according to patient’s comfortability level, counseling patient’s family regarding disease and helping them to select suitable and appropriate treatment options. Moreover, the Government should organize an awareness program to educate the patient with respect to primary prevention, which includes awareness related to self breast examination, treatment options that are less invasive as a secondary prevention and tertiary prevention that should include the concept of palliative care, and information about the institution that provide palliative and hospice care. On the other hand, female health care professionals should be given first priority to be trained to deal with culturally sensitive issues. Together, these contributions can help to eradicate issues related to breast cancer and will support patients suffering from it. References Banning,M., Hassan,M., Faisal,S., Hafeez,H. (2010). Cultural interrelationships and the lived experience of Pakistani breast cancer patients.European Journal of Oncology Nursing. doi:10.1016/j.ejon.2010.05.001 B-Articles. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.shaukatkhanum.org.pk/news-a-events/events/228.html BODEY,G. (1986). Infection in cancer patients: A continuing association.American Journal of Medicine. doi:10.1016/0002-9343(86)90510-3 Capra,S., Ferguson,M., Ried,K. (2001). Cancer: impact of nutrition intervention outcome—nutrition issues for patients.Nutrition. doi:10.1016/S0899-9007(01)00632-3 Daher,M. (2012). Cultural beliefs and values in cancer patients.Annals of Oncology. doi:10.1093/annonc/mds091 Eilers,J., Million,R. (2011). Clinical Update: Prevention and Management of Oral Mucositis in Patients with Cancer.Seminars in Oncology Nursing. doi:10.1016/j.soncn.2011.08.001 Gonà §alves,L.C., Travassos,G.L., Almeida,A.M., Guimarà £es,A.N., Gois,C.F. (2014). Barriers in health care to breast cancer: perception of women*. Retrieved from DOI: 10.1590/S0080-623420140000300002 Kingsley,C. (2010).Cultural and Socioeconomic Factors Affecting Cancer Screening, Early Detection and Care in the Latino Population. Lore,L., Anne,S., Patrick,S., Simon,V.B. (2012). Neoplasm Related Encephalopathies. InMiscellanea on Encephalopathies A Second Look(pp.91-120). INTECH Open Access Publisher. Memon,Z.A., Shaikh,A.N., Rizwan,S., Sardar,M.B. (2013). Reasons for Patient’s Delay in Diagnosis of Breast Carcinoma in Pakistan. Retrieved from DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7314/APJCP.2013.14.12.7409 Willson,K.J., Nott,L.M., Broadbridge,V.T., Price,T. (2013). Hepatic Encephalopathy Associated With Cancer or Anticancer Therapy.Gastrointest Cancer Research,6(1), 11-16. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3597933/

Female Genital Mutilation Extremely Controversial Topic Criminology Essay

Female Genital Mutilation Extremely Controversial Topic Criminology Essay An estimated 100 million to 140 million girls and women worldwide have undergone female gender mutilation/cutting (Population Reference Bureau, 2008). This figure is enormous and unsurprisingly, Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is an extremely controversial topic within the international sphere. Whilst some may argue that it is simply natural and a general norm within certain areas and cultures, others, largely from the Western world, believe it to be an infringement of a basic human right and so many concerns and condemnations of the practice emerge from an ethical and humanitarian perspective. Engaging with this debate involves studying the works of two academics, Martha Nussbaum and Yael Tamir, both providing counteracting views towards such a complicated debate like this one. This essay examines the practice of female circumcision, arguing that it is legitimate for states like the UK to attempt to bring them to an end, thus agreeing with the argument made by Nussbaum, namely that we should be ashamed of ourselves if we do not use whatever privilege and power has come our way to make it disappear forever (Nussbaum, 1996). My argument however is one of states only being able to legitimately intervene where FGM is being practiced against the will of females, yet if the practice is warranted and women, of adult age, consent to it, then it is not as permissible for states to intervene. Cultural opinions and determination are not valid enough reasons to allow such a horrific process to continue, specifically due to the medical implications of the circumcision procedure as a whole. The Capabilities Approach by Nussbaum (1999) is examined within this essay therefore, in terms of arguing that females should have the choice of whether or not to go through with the act of FGM as this procedure removes their opportunity to fulfil their full capabilities as both human beings and as women. Thus this goes hand-in-hand with the argument that states are legitimate in interve ning to allow capabilities to be satisfied. Finally, a series of policy recommendations are made with respect to the ways in which states, such as the UK, can intervene legitimately to prevent such practices occurring in future years, the key one being education. These measures will therefore protect the human rights and social welfare of females across the world, along with other institutions i.e. Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs). FGM is commonly performed on young girls as a rite of passage to womanhood (Rahman and Toubia, 2000, p.3). Since the early 1990s, FGM has gained global recognition as a serious health and human rights issue. Often this act is committed for social and cultural values as opposed to medical ones and so it is very difficult to begin a process of change as in order to do this, as the whole thinking of society and its actors would need be adjusted. Largely conducted within African countries, the practice, although having decreased in recent years, still poses a threat to the rights and capabilities of women in such areas. The fall in numbers of females undergoing such circumcision coincides with numerous global efforts to target excisors, medical professionals, and families who perpetuate the practice (Population Reference Bureau, 2008). Political will and implementation of such legislation however is the key hurdle to achieving this. FGM poses severe health risks, both physical and psychological in both the immediate/short-term and also the long-term. Some of these medical problems include: haemorrhaging, infections, septicaemia, shock from the severe pain and loss of blood, risks during childbirth, and in extreme cases, death (Slack, 1988, p.451). Other side effects include: infertility, cysts and abscesses, urinary incontinence and psychological and sexual problems (Population Reference Bureau, 2008). Intense trauma is often caused as many of the females who undergo this operation are of an incredibly young age, held down by force and circumcised with little, if any, anaesthesia (Slack, 1988, p.454).These medical consequences for women who undergo genital mutilation are unbearable to even think of, let alone experience, yet still the practice continues due to the myths which surround the issue i.e. females being sterile until they have been excised and so the procedure will supposedly increase fertility (Slack, 1988, p.447) and other myths that the clitoris is incredibly dangerous to women so if not excised will be harmful to the foetus, physically and spiritually (Slack, 1988, 460). Such myths are of course based on fictitious information but due to social pressures are not questioned but preserved, as has been the case for many years. The following map illustrates where FGM is at its highest and thus such areas are the first which need to be aided through state intervention to stop it. Statistics have shown though, that although the practice is still occurring, largely within third world countries, the number of women undergoing FGM has actually fallen and so this is indicative that some level of progress towards eradicating FGM is occurring. African countries, specifically Egypt, Mali, North Sudan and Ethiopia are (according to 2009 figures) experiencing the highest rates of female circumcision procedures. Source: Jaeger, Caflisch and Hohlfeld, 2009, p.28. In international relations, both high priority and low priority political issues need to be addressed, seeking global communication, negotiation and interaction. Globally, greater interconnectedness and increasing multicultural societies are leading to both domestic and international issues being discussed at a global level. This is indicative of states helping other states in terms of economics i.e. through increased trade and assistance during globalisation, and politics i.e. through the exchange of political ideologies and support. The argument here posits that if it is legitimate for states to intervene in economic and political issues, is it not also legitimate for states to intervene, when and where necessary, to improve social welfare and quality of life of the less fortunate? This does of course refer to intervention to stop FGM and resultantly improve the social welfare of women across the globe. Governments duty to take action against practices like female circumcision is e mbedded in international human rights treaties and thus states must comply with this (Rahman and Toubir, 2000, p.44). FGM is therefore a violation of a fundamental human right, and as the process cannot be reversed, the consequences are horrific. Bleeding profusely, reproduction problems, and even death are the terrible repercussions that those who undergo the process will endure. Hence these are serious medical implications and these are medical explanations for stopping the practice, as opposed to the usual moral explanations often spoken of within international ethics theory (Jaeger, Caflisch and Hohlfeld, 2009, p.31). Tamir (1996) however, makes the argument that before looking at other countries, we should look at our own countries as they are highly unlikely to be perfect. I disagree with this to some extent, particularly in relation to the issue of FGM. Countries where this occurs may simply believe this to be a custom or norm, something that is a normal and unquestionable pa rt of a females life. Without being educated and increasing awareness though, this disturbing process will continue. The people living in such small communities view FGM as normality, relying on myths on which to base the rest of their lives. Thus, it is the duty of those more educated i.e. in the West, to use education as the catalyst to bring about change and in turn stop this practice from occurring against the will of females. So why is it that FGM is seen as disgraceful whilst male circumcision is not seen with such unacceptability? A key reason for this relates to religion i.e. in Islamic teachings, male circumcision is natural and compulsory for all Muslim males. Male circumcision is not as harmful in any way when compared to FGM is and men are still able to fully function both physically and sexually whereas women arent. Male circumcision outside of Islam is often undertaken for hygiene reasons and so all of these reasons clearly display the picture that within most societies around the world, male circumcision is widely accepted as a type of norm. The term female circumcision seems to suggest an analogy with male circumcision yet in actual fact, the degree of cutting in female circumcision is anatomically much more extensive (Rahman and Toubia, 2000, p.4). In addition to this, FGM is seen as a way of sexually controlling females and although in current political debate this may seem to be rather liber al in appearance, references to cliteridectomy commonly reveal a patronizing attitude toward women, suggesting that they are primarily sexual beings (Tamir, 1996). Thus many advocates of cliteridectomy are concerned with corruption i.e. that the operation will restrict female sexual desires and in turn this will make them chaste wives and mothers (Tamir, 1996). The issue here though is that sexual enjoyment from women is not an openly discussed matter, but rather a taboo in many traditional communities, and so cliteridectomy is in itself symbolic of repressing female sexuality. Such non-Western cultural practices like FGM often symbolise resistance to the dominance of the West i.e. in Kenya, whereby cliteridectomy gained life as a political tool between British Colonials and African Nationals (Brown, 1991, p.262, cited in Jaggar, 2005, p.577/578). The counter-argument to this though lies within the hypothetical example given by Tamir (1996): mutilation enables women to be free of their reliance on men and thus they are able to function fully in order to follow social and political aspirations. The more common argument however is one of cliteridectomy and similar practices being corrupt in nature, restricting women and not allowing them to break free of the imposed barriers with respect to sexuality. All of these issues relate back to cultural and traditional values and so it often impossible to think beyond ones own culture. Nussbaum, a liberal feminist, provides an almost world-view which encourages people to think outside their own cultural box, raising the argument that just because something is done i.e. FGM, this does not mean that we cannot question it or interrogate it for the greater good. Her concerns therefore lie with issues of morality, freewill and choice. Nussbaum (1996) responded to Tamir (1996), focusing primarily on three points: (1) it is unfair to criticise another culture without being prepared to accept criticisms of ones own culture, (2) one cannot criticise another cultures acts without the certainty that their own culture is free of any evils, and (3) FGM is morally similar to dieting and body-shaping as within American culture. Nussbaum (1996) agrees with the first point, disagrees with the second and believes the third point to be egregiously wrong, con tending that the damage caused to women from extreme dieting and surgery can be undone in most cases, yet genital mutilation cannot be and so this is why it is of the greatest concern. The third critique Nussbaum (1996) makes is of greatest relevance as FGM is often compared cosmetic surgery and enhancements and so on by many theorists. It is often seen as the opposing argument, but as stated in the article, the eight differences between FGM versus dieting and surgery explain why Vogue is not illegal, whereas FGM is illegal in many of the countries where it occurs (Nussbaum, 1996). Nussbaum (1999) later built on Amartya Sens theory of Capabilities and this is of great relevance when examining the controversial topic of FGM. She understands capabilities to characterise each human life and is interested in ensuring that all persons have these capabilities to perform central functions, an explicitly Universalist standpoint. Her argument affirms that within the political arena, human beings exhibit moral capabilities which can in future be developed, yet such capabilities are deprived of the nourishment that would transform them into high-level capabilities (Nussbaum, 1999, p.236). Hence without these capabilities Nussbaum (1999) argues human beings are useless. With regards to FGM, the Capabilities Approach largely frowns upon the deprivation of individuals to have the opportunity to choose to be sexually active or indeed celibate (Nussbaum, 1999, p.238). Capabilities require constant development to be able to function fully. With respect to Nussbaums work, ten ce ntral human function capabilities are identified (Nussbaum, 1999, p.235). FGM breaks two of these capabilities, namely bodily health and bodily integrity (Nussbaum, 1999, p.235). Hence according to these, states are legitimate in intervening and influencing other states where practices like female circumcision are taking away the capabilities of their citizens. Resultantly, the Capabilities Approach is demonstrative of an accurate framework to use where the matter of states, like the UK, legitimising actions, such as FGM, is concerned. This Capabilities Approach was later put into action by the United Nations Human Development Reports, arguing that GDP per capita was not a true reflection of this and instead, Sen argued that how people live their lives and other similar economic indicators, need to be examined. Tamir (1996) opposes such points, arguing that there is much to criticise about ones own culture before one is able to criticise another. So common Western practices such as cosmetic surgery, in her argument, would be open to the same criticisms from non-Western countries as FGM is for people within the West. In her critique, states are not legitimate in intervening in other countries before they have addressed all issues of a similar nature within their own home country. With respect to this argument though, the fact of the matter remains that those individuals who undergo surgery and other cosmetic enhancements are usually doing so out of their own personal choice and so this raises other concerns as to why people feel the need to do this, as opposed to intervening to stop it. Other theorists are generally more reluctant for intervention to occur i.e. Walzer, who would argue that intervention of any kind would only be necessary if a clear case of genocide was being demonstrated whe re thousands of victims were losing their lives. In my critique of this though, the practice of FGM, although maybe not as severe as genocide, is indicative of female oppression and so causes a predictable number of deaths which could have been prevented had the right systems been put into place through state intervention. The factor specific to FGM which makes it appropriate for outsiders to intervene and attempt to halt it is that of women not being given a choice of whether or not to undergo the procedure. Women should be able to decide for themselves whether or not they wish to be circumcised, with no pressure from external forces, yet before such a decision they must be made aware of the implications in terms of health and future capabilities. This is what Nussbaum (1999) is referring to in her Capabilities argument as outlined previously. As prosperous developing countries, it is the obligation and duty of states like the UK to intervene to stop FGM when it occurs against the will of women, at least until sufficient change is seen and this change fosters sustainability. The following section therefore examines the ways of doing this. Since the early 1990s, FGM has been recognised as a global human rights issue and so numerous efforts have been made to end it or to at least reduce the number of cases of it occurring. Initiatives such as the annual International Day Against Female Genital Mutilation on February 6th, introduced by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) in 2007, demonstrates this, calling for greater government commitment to programmes preventing the practice (Obaid, 2007). Although female circumcision is a heavily criticised practice in many developed countries, it is not feasible to simply condemn the practice as this suggests that Western culture is paramount. Understandings of cultural relativism need to transpire but more importantly, a process of change needs to be instigated. Nussbaum (1996) is correct in critiquing Tamir for this (suggesting cultural relativism is a valid argument), explaining how it is difficult to morally decide whether or not intervention should be committed in terms o f local or distant acts, and although individuals will legitimately prioritise about these decisions, this does not mean that we should not intervene. Poor education and low levels of income among women in African countries, coupled with inadequate governmental support (Wakabi, 2007, p.1069) are the key issues regarding the eradication of FGM and only when such problem areas are addressed, can progress begin to occur. Rahman and Toubia (2000, pp.58-68) identify three types of measure to be implemented in order to tackle the FGM issue: legal, regulatory and policy measures. It is important to note from the very beginning though that no single measure will be feasible if states are to intervene, but rather a series of combined approaches and changes must be adopted. Legal measures involve ratifying human rights arrangements to ensure that rights within such treaties are upheld and also carefully considering the imposition of criminal sanctions to dissuade people from committing the circumcision operation (Rahman and Toubia, 2000, pp.59-61). With regards to regulatory measures, suggestions have been made of disciplining those medical professionals who engage in the practice and removing their licences if they persistently offend (Rahman and Toubia, 2000, p.68). Finally, but most importantly, policy measure areas are discussed, these being: education, the media, empowering women and increasing access to reproductive welfare services (Rahman and Toubir, 2000, pp.68-71). The primary way of states intervening legitimately, in my argument, is through the process of education. By educating those within the countries where the practice of FGM takes place, the root cause of the problem can be targeted. This has previously been done through NGOs and alike, yet states too can intervene to promote adequate social welfare for the women within countries where FGM is a severe issue. Older generations need to be approached and made to understand the deficiencies associated with the practice and thus ultimately this will feed through to younger generations. Simultaneously though, younger generations too need to be targeted as t hey are the future and by educating them, forthcoming generations of females will be protected against such a painful practice. Governments need to begin devoting resources to providing FGM practicing countries and communities with information about the negative effects of the procedure and about human rights as important. Such information however must emphasize the potential psychological and physical impact[as well as] examine the history and purpose (Rahman and Toubir, 2000, p.68). If we now examine the media, the argument made is one of facilitating public dialogue and discourse about FGM along with the promotion of women to be free from FGM by various media outlets (Rahman and Toubir, 2000, p.69). This is a very good suggestion, yet in my critique, isnt feasible due to the fact that media within FGM practicing countries is relatively low, if at all existent. Thus this policy recommendation is good in theory yet in practice may not be as simple as first assumed. Empowering women is the third suggestion, self-explanatory in nature yet the ways of doing this include reforming policies which prevent women from improving their status i.e. social, economic etc, ensuring women can work alongside men and that issues of equal pay are addressed (Rahman and Toubir, 2000, p.70). Again this poses potential difficulties in that in certain rural communities, women are not seen as employable and do not have the opportunity to go out to work and more importantly have not been educated enough to undertake even the most low-skilled job positions. Hence such a recommendation is reliant on the previous policy suggestion of education, as only when communities are educated will the women within them be able to start working legitimately. The final proposal is that relating to reproductive services for females within the communities where female circumcision is occurring. These services are critical in providing women with accurate information about FGM as a whole in terms of th eir reproductive health (Rahman and Toubir, 2000, p.71). This is a great service as it is well-known that women who have been circumcised require regular medical attention and so this would address this issue and make it a more widely recognised initiative. Hence the ideal outcome of this is that women, who understand the severity of the practice for their health, will be less likely to make their daughters go through with it (Rahman and Toubir, 2000, p.71). This is ideal and would be the best possible solution but, Rahman and Toubir (2000) fail to consider the impact of community, religious, cultural, family and social pressures on women who do not undergo the FGM operation. Thus reproductive services although being an invaluable resource, are not as simple and easy in terms of changing social attitudes immediately. In the long-run however, reproductive services do have the potential scope to be a success. Other suggestions for intervention include: withholding aid to those countries where FGM is continuing to happen along with working with local groups to support advocacy efforts promoting negotiated, verbal intervention as opposed to plain physical intervention. The critique of this though relates to speaking but taking no action and some theorists would argue that an issue like FGM can only be tackled by head-on intervention that doesnt pussyfoot around the topic but rather stops the practice for the horror it causes, and rightly so. It can be argued by many that these policy recommendations are too simplistic and idealistic yet the fact of the matter remains that before any of these can be implemented, government structures need to be changed. In places like Somalia, several humanitarian organisations have launched campaigns to stop the spread of FGM, yet the widespread insecurity and absence of a central administration have only handed minimal success to their efforts (Wakabi, 2007, p.1070). A case study of Mali however informs us of the positive impact of NGO based intervention, working alongside local communities and governments. The initiative here used a mobile cinema travelling from village to village to encourage the open discussion of womens health issues and once trust had been established, discussed FGM more openly in an attempt to change social attitudes towards it (Good, 2010). This programme has increased awareness about FGM amongst the Malian community, and is beginning to get positive results in M ali, where women are deciding against their daughters being circumcised (Good, 2010). Kenya too has undertaken programmes, the key one being Ntanira Na Mugambo which translates to Circumcision by Words (BBC News, 1998). This week long programme secluded women from males, informing them about FGM in a subtle manner i.e. referring to anatomy, reproduction, self-esteem building, dealing with peer pressure and respecting adults (BBC News, 1998). Thus this type of programme didnt abhor FGM outright but rather tackled the issues surrounding it, offering an alternative view yet allowing the women to make up their own minds. Another project was employed in Uganda where an Outreach Plan was created, targeting leaders of rural communities who commit the practice of FGM. Such a plan provided local community leaders with economic incentives to stop the process i.e. that those women who undergo FGM find it incredibly difficult to work and thus their contribution to the workforce is trivial (Rahman and Toubia, 2000, p.78). Such intuition prevents women from being forced to be circumcised whilst also positively impacting upon productivity and as a result increasing economic efficiency. Outside pressure does still exist though and experts on FGM believe it is vital to actively engage with communities to ban the practice and penalise those who still conduct it. Thus as said before, education, although the most important element of this process of instigating change, cannot simply be the only solution, but rather must be combined with a series of other strategies. To conclude, FGM is a practice heavily debated about within international relations due to the ethical concerns it raises and ultimately infringes. Cultural relativist positions would argue that is necessary to understand the behaving of different groups due to cultural backgrounds, yet the stance that we should simply accept differences is highly critiques where FGM is concerned. In my critique, the practice is one worthy of severe condemnation, yet through little fault of the people continuing it but rather the myths and general history surrounding it. Hence, ultimately it is these myths and historical factors that need to be eradicated in order to promote the safety of women across the globe, particularly in less-developed countries. Thus this essay has agreed with and supported the argument put forward by Nussbaum that it is legitimate for states like the US and UK to intervene to bring the practice of FGM to an end yet this is relative to the situation. My core argument however remains that if women are being forced to undergo genital mutilation, then it is acceptable for states to intervene through the measures discussed previously. However, if the procedure if consented to and women are voluntarily wishing to go through with it out of their own freewill, then states are not legitimate in intervening. Intervention thus is dependent on the factor of choice towards FGM, yet women and men alike should be educated about the medical and psychological consequences of it. Additionally, such education should enlighten communities about the falsities of the myths they cling on to and how they are in actual fact untrue. The Capabilities Approach is fundamental to this process of education as it informs the public of how FGM can harm and worsen the capabilities of women. Education however will not work alone and must be accompanied by a series of other policy measures, namely legislation, regulatory policies and reproductive services. It is therefore legitimate for states like the UK to intervene to halt practices like FGM, according to the circumstances outlined in this essay and through the policy recommendations suggested.